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HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK; 



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(PART FIRST.) 



CONTAINING 



SKETCHES OF HISTORY, 



FROM THE BEGINNING OP THE WORLD TO THE END OF 
THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN ITALY, A. D. 476. 



PopuLus Americanus 
Nemini servire aut consuevit, aut debuit, nisi 
Deo et Legibus. 



By WILLIAM SULLIVAN, LL.D. 

Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences j and of the Massachusetts 
Historical Society j (Author of the Political and Moral Class Books.) 



/ 
BOSTON: <^ 7^-^^ 

PUBLISHED BY CARTER, HENDEE, AND~CO. 

1833. 













/.-* rf 



Entered, according to an Act of Congress, in the year 1833, 

By William Sullivan, 
In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Massachusetts. 



//f^. 



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PUBLISHERS' ADVERTISEMENT. 

We offer the first part of the Historical Class 
Book. If this mode of treating history should prove to 
be useful, we expect to publish a second part, com- 
prising similar sketches, from the end of the Roman 
Empire in Italy, A. D. 476, to the Reformation ; and a 
third part, containing sketches from the Reformation to 
the present time. 

We suppose that such a mode of treating history may 
comprise enough for general information in schools ; 
and lay a foundation for more comprehensive study of 
history. The author does not pretend that there is any 
thing new in these pages, except in the attempt to apply 
the experience of ancient nations, to the people of the 
United States. 

There is but one map with this volume ; and that is 
added more for the purpose of delineating the square in 
Asia, and that of the Mediterranean, than any other. It 
was not supposed to be necessary to prepare maps (of 
which there should be several if any) as there are maps 
in common use which are sufficient. Cummings and 
Hilliard published 'An Ancient Atlas, selected from 
Wilkinson's Atlas classica ;' which comprises maps of 



•y ADVERTISEMENT. 

all the countries treated of in this volume. There is an 
Atlas by Worcester, which is also well reputed. The 
first mentioned, (as well as many others) were used in 
this compilation. 

CARTER, HENDEE, & CO. 

Boston, July 1, 1833. 



DEDICATION. 



TO THE YOUNG PERSONS OF THE UNITED STATES. 



Your nation has political, moral, religious, and social 
means of happiness, which have not fallen to the lot of 
any other nation. This volume shows how the nations, 
properly called ancient, arose, flourished, and disappear- 
ed. Their destiny will teach you what will happen to 
yourselves, or those who come after you, if you do not 
perform to yourselves, and them, the duties of good 
citizens. 

Existence is a political and social trust. If your 
fathers had not so held it to be, you would now be the 
subjects of a transatlantic empire. If you do not so 
hold it to be, your successors will be slaves to a tyranny 
of domestic origin. 

The administration of public affairs among us, de- 
mands the attention of every citizen who has anything 
to hope or fear ; for every citizen is one of the people, 
who are to be visited by good, or evil. The people 
unitedly, constitute the only legitimate sovereign. So- 
vereignty implies duties, and duties imply competent 
knowledge. 

To understand what the right discharge of duty is, 

you must know what the causes of welfare are, and to 

what perils they are exposed. The former may be 

learned by comparing your own country with other 

1* 



vi DEDICATION. 

countries ; and the latter, by studying the actions of men 
on their fellow men. In these respects the history of 
every nation is instructive, because motives are always 
the same, among the ambitious and the craving, who 
have, in all ages, been the enemies of the human race. 
You are not to suppose, that those who may hereafter 
destroy civil liberty, in this country, will begin with the 
intention of doing it; but, that such men will go on 
from step to step, in strengthening their dominion, just 
as an individual goes deeper and deeper in vice, until he 
becomes immersed in depravity. 

Americans seem to be inclined to think of offices as 
though they were created for the benefit of those who 
are called to fill them ; when, in truth, they are creat- 
ed solely for the benefit of the people. Rulers are 
merely the agents of the people, and should be held to 
strict performance of their trust. But how are the peo- 
ple to know whether they are well, or ill served, if they 
know not, themselves, what duty is ? These pages are a 
humble attempt to aid you in obtaining that knowledge, 

Wm. SULLIVAN. 

Boston, July 1, 1833. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 

Page 
Introduction, 13 



CHAPTER H. 

From the Creation to the Deluge, one thousand five hundred 
and sixty seven years, 20 



CHAPTER m. 

From the Deluge, in sixteen hundred and fifty seven, to the 
death of Moses, in the year of the world, twenty-five hundred 
and fifty three. (896 years), 24 



CHAPTER IV. 
Topography of the Promised Land, 30 



CHAPTER V. 

From the time of Joshua, to the end of the Theocracy of the 
Israelites, in the year two thousand nine hundred and nine. 
(470 years), 34 



CHAPTER VI. 

The reign of Saul, David, and Solomon ; from two thousand 
nine hundred and nine, to three thousand and twenty nine. 
(120 years), 36 



CONTENTS. 



Page 
CHAPTER VII. 

From the death of Solomon, to the end of the kingdom of Is- 
rael; from three thousand twenty nine, to three thousand 
two hundred and eighty three. (254 years), 41 



CHAPTER Vm. 

The kingdom of Judah, from the death of Solomon, in three 
thousand and twenty nine, to its termination in three thou- 
sand one hundred and sixteen. (388 years), 44 



CHAPTER IX. 
The square in Asia, 49 

CHAPTER X. 

Egypt, from the Deluge, to the Conquest of Alexander the 
Great, iA the year 3673 of the world, 59 



CHAPTER XI. 

Greece from the earliest times to the destruction of Troy, 
about 1180 years before the Christian era, 71 



CHAPTER XII. 
From the siege of Troy (1180 B. C.) to the death of Alex- 
ander (in 323 B. C.) 80 



CHAPTER XIII. 

'Of Sparta, (or Lacedsemon) chief City of Laconia, in the Pelo- 
ponnesus, 86 

CHAPTER XIV. 
Athens, 90 

CHAPTER XV. 

Athens from the expulsion of the Persians, to the death of 
Pericles 429 years B. C, comprising fifty years. ' 103 



CONTENTS. XI 



Page 
CHAPTER XVI. 

From the death of Pericles (in 429 B. C.,) to the commence- 
ment of the reign of Alexander, (336 B. C.), 112 



CHAPTER XVII. 

The reign of Alexander, and its consequences, (from 336 B. 
C.) to the time when Greece became a Roman province, (in 
188 B. C), 120 



CHAPTER XVIIl. 
From the end of the Jewish captivity (536 B. C.) to the begin- 
ning of the Christian era. 127 



CHAPTER XIX. 

The Romans — from their first appearance to the end of their 
monarchy, (506 years B, C), 135 



CHAPTER XX. 

The Romans — from the end of the monarchy (506 B. C.,) to 
the taking, and burning of Rome by the Gauls, under Bren- 
nus, (in the year 390 B. C.,) 141 



CHAPTER XXL 

From the rebuilding of Rome, after its destruction by the 
Gauls ; to the conquest of the whole of Italy, by the Romans 
(in 264 B. C.,) 14^ 



CHAPTER XXII. 

The three wars between Rome and Carthage, usually called the 
Punic wars, and the conquests of Rome, (from 264 to 147 
B. C.) 153 



CHAPTER XXIII. 
From the end of the third Punic war (in 147 B. C.,) to the 
death of Sylla (in 78 B. C.,) 162 



Xll CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER XXIV. ^* 

From the death of Sylla, (in 78 B. C.) to the death of Pompey 
(in 48 B. C.,) 178 



CHAPTER XXV. 

From the death of Pompey (in 48 B. C.) to the death of Cassar 
(44 B. C.,) 185 



CHAPTER XXVI. 

* From the death of Caesar (in 44 B. C.) to the reign of Augus- 
tus (in 30 B. C.) 200 



CHAPTER XXVII. 
The Reign of the Roman Emperors. 210 

CHAPTER XXVIII. 

From the death of Augustus (A. D. 14,) to the death of Con- 
stantino the Great (A. D. 337.,) 217 



CHAPTER XXIX. 

From the death qf Constantine the Great, to the destruction of 
the Roman empire in Italy ; (A. D. 476.) 231 



CHAPTER XXX. 

Comparisons between Ancient Nations, and the people of the 
United States. 241 

Index, 255 

* The title of this chapter is erroneously printed in page 200. 



Come ! by whatever sacred name disguised, 
Oppression! come ! and in thy works rejoice '. 
See Nature's richest plains, to putrid fens 
Turned by thy fury ! 

Thompson's lAbtrty, 



€Kreece. 

Behold ! 

Where on the iEgean sea a city stands ; 
Athens ! the eye of Greece, mother of arts 
And eloquence. 

See there the Olive grove of Academe, 
Plato's retirement ; where the Attic bird 
Thrills her thick-warbled notes the summer long. 

There Illisus rolls 
His whisp'ring stream: Within the walls then view, 
The schools of ancient sages ; his who bred 
Great Alexander to subdue the world, 
Lyceum, there, and painted Stoa, next. 
There shall thou hear, and learn the secret power 
Of harmony, in tones and numbers hit 
By voice or hand, and various measured verse ; 
iEolian charms, and Dorian lyric odes. 
And his who gave tliem breath, but higher sung, 
Blind Melesigenes, thence Homer called. 
Whose poem Pha?bus challeng'd for his own. 

Thence to the famous orators repair ; 

Those ancient, whose resistless eloquence 

Wielded at will, that fierce democratie ; 

Shook the arsenal, and fulmined over Greece 

To Macedon, and Artaxerxes' throne : 

To sage philosophy next lend thine ear, 

From Heav'n descended to the low roof 'd house 

Of Socrates ; 

Whom, well inspired, the oracle pronounced 

Wisest of men ; from whose mouth issued forth 

Mellifluous streams, that watered all the schools 

Of Academics old and new ; with those 

Surnamed Peripatetics, and the sect 

Epicurean, and the Stoic severe. 

These here revolve. 

Milton's Paradise Regained. 



Thus up the hill of empire slow they toiled 
Till the bold summit gained, the thousand states 
Of proud Italia blended into one ; 
Then o'er the nations they resistless rushed, 
And touched the limits of the failing world. 

Thompson's Zdberty. 

There, as though 
Grandeur attracted grandeur, are beheld 
All things that strike, ennoble — from the depths 
Of Egypt ; from the classic fields of Greece, _ 
Her groves, her temples ; all things that inspire 
Wonder, delight ! 

BoGERs' Italy- 

But when with sudden and enormous change 
The first of mankind sunk into the last, 
As once in virtue, so in vice, extreme j 
This universal fabric yielded loose 
Before ambition still ! and thundering dovra, 
At last, beneath its ruins crush'd a world. 
A conquering people to themselves a prey 
Must ever fall ; when their victorious troops 
In blood and rapine savage grown, can find 
No land to sack and pillage but their own. 

Thompson's Liberty. 



Rapt into future times the bard begun : 

A virgin shall conceive, a virgin bear a son ! 

From Jesse's root behold a branch arise. 

Whose sacred flower with fragrance fills the skies ; 

Th' eternal spirit o'er its leaves shall move, 

And on its top descends the mystic dove. 

Ye Heav'ns ! from high the dewy nectar pour, 

And in soft silence shed the kindly shower. 

The sick,' the weak, the healing plant shall aid. 

From storms a shelter, and from heat a shade. 

All crimes shall cease, and ancient fraud shall fail. 

Returning justice lift aloft her scale. 

Peace o'er the world her olive wand extend. 

And white rob'd innocence, from Heaven descend. 

Swift fly the years, and rise th' expected morn ! 

Oh spring to light, auspicious babe ! be born ! 

Pope's Messiah. 



2Cf)e jFall ot 3Elome- 

From the depth 
Of forests, from what none had dared explore, 
Regions of thrilling ice, as though in ice 
Engendered ; multiplied they pour along. 
Shaggy, and huge ! Host after host they come, 
The Goth, the Vandal, and again the Goth ! 

Rogers' Italy. 



THE 



HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

CHAPTER I. 



INTRODUCTION. 



Section 1. Mankind have a natural curiosity to know 
what is doing, what has been done, and what is to be 
expected. It is founded in sympathy. As one man may 
have acquired, avoided, suffered, or enjoyed, so may 
another. As nations are made up of men, and begin, 
go on, and end, as human Ufe does, curiosity extends to 
the causes and effects of national prosperity, adver- 
sity, decline, and extinction. As the history of an indi- 
vidual's life may be instructive, and monitory, so may 
the history of nations be to all who make it a study. 
If one fcan see in the vicissitudes of a particular life, a 
combination of circumstances, wherein the adoption of 
one course of conduct would have led to security and 
honour, and another, to dependence and misery, so may 
it be, in the affairs of nations. 

§ 2. Mankind have the same form, the same passions, 
and the same wants, under all aspects. The objects 
from which gratification is sought, may be different, 
among different nations. History is full of instruction 
as to the best objects ; and every where full of warning 
to avoid those, which lead to affliction and misery. As 
like causes must always produce like effects among the 
human family, in all ages, surely it is most important to 
know what those causes have been which have produced 
safety, and prosperity, or degradation, and wretched- 
ness. 

3 



14 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

§ 3. The study of history is peculiarly important to 
Americans, because they have the means of social wel- 
fare in an eminent degree ; and far more so than any 
other people have had. They have an absolute control 
over these means. If they do not preserve them, and so 
use them, as to exalt human society, far above any con- 
dition known to any other people, it must be because 
they elect not to do so ; but to add one more nation to 
the long list of those, who have appeared, flourished, and 
fallen, through their own folly, and perverseness. 

§ 4. In what manner history should be written, de- 
pends on the class of readers for whom it is intended. 
In any case it should be true and impartial. As it is 
commonly written, facts are stated in chronological or- 
der ; and the reader is left to draw the moral for himself. 
This is the proper mode when readers are competent to 
this service. A different course should be adopted when 
history is written for the use of young persons. A mi- 
nute and tedious detail of facts, in which the same follies, 
and tragedies, are again and again repeated, by different 
actors, tends to no useful instruction. It can only leave 
on the memory an undefined impression, which a short 
lapse of time will make too uncertain, and confused, to 
entitle it to the name of knowledge. The first study of 
history should be of great outlines, traced in the series 
of ages. It may be made to be the foundation on which 
the study of maturer years may safely rest. 

^ 5. But even a study so simple, and elementary, will 
fail of being profitable, unless the elements of history be 
first understood. The young student must begin by fix- 
ing these truths in his mind : All nations that are, or 
have been, are made up of human beings, existing on 
some defined portion of the earth, as distinct fi:om other 
nations : All of them have had some sort of government, 
and some sort of religion : All individuals of the many 
nations have had homes, and property, which they de- 
sired to preserve : Most of them have desired, and many 
have attempted to get, the possessions of others. 

<^ 6. In all nations there are some persons who desire 
to subject others to their own dominion, by some means. 
So among nations, all of them desire to be superior to 
all others, and to obtain absolute power. The whole of 
aiicient history seems to be made up of efforts to carry 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 15 

such desires into effect. In modern times, and even in 
this century, one man, (as so many had done before 
him) meditated a universal empire. 

<^ 7. The elements of history are thus seen to be the 
exercise of power, and sometimes under the stimulus of 
the vrorst of passions. The machinery of this power, is 
the force of arms, fraud, cunning, and the terrors of 
superstition. The agents who have controlled this ma- 
chinery, have sometimes applied it successfully ; but 
most of them have acquired glory and renown, only to 
yield them to more powerful followers. In all this the 
mass of population, in every nation, have borne the bur- 
then ; and when reverses overwhelmed their chiefs, have 
been plundered, slain, or reduced to servitude. 

§ 8. It is only within the last three hundred years, that 
the world has begun to wear a better aspect. The power 
exercised by one, or a few, over the many, has been more 
and more defined. The tyranny of priesthood has been 
gradually disappearing. The surprising truth has been 
demonstrated, that every man in a whole nation, has 
rights and duties, as one of his nation ; and is an equal 
partner, with all others, in ordering what political pow- 
er shall be, and how it shall be used. A no less sur- 
prising truth has been established, that it is a natural 
right to reason about religion, and to obey the dictates 
of one's own conscience. And the still further truth, 
that man has a right to be independent of all laws to 
which he has not impliedly, and freely, assented. 

<^ 9. These truths constitute the principles of political 
authority among the people of the United States. It is 
the purpose of the following pages to show how this en- 
viable distinction has been acquired ; to show, also, what 
its true value is, by comparing it with what is known of 
other people in the long lapse of time covered by history. 
A tedious recital of facts is not necessary to accomplish 
this purpose. The points to be regarded are, the por- 
tions of the earth in which memorable events occurred ; 
the times in which they occurred ; and to present the 
means of comparison, between other nations, and those 
of the United States. 

§ 10. It is obvious that history can be known only 
from books ; and that many books must have been ex- 
amined, to sketch, even the outline of history, through 



f 
16 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

nearly six thousand years. It would be inconvenient to 
cite authorities in a school book ; while it is proper to 
say, that no fact of importance is stated, but on examina- 
tion, and comparison, of authorities. It would be unjust 
not to say, that among the books which have been often- 
est in hand, either for what they contain, or refer to, are 
Calmet's Dictionary of the Bible, published by Charles 
Taylor, revised by Professor Edward Robinson of the 
Theological Seminary at Andover ; and the Encyclo- 
pedia Americana, (edited from a similar work published 
in Germany) by Dr F. Lieber, assisted by E. Wiggles- 
worth, and T. G. Bradford. Other works must some- 
times be mentioned in the course of the pages. 

§ 11. As to the places, or parts of the earth in which 
all great events occurred from the creation down to the 
end of four thousand four hundred and seventy-six of the 
Christian era, they are comprised within narrow limits, 
compared with the whole surface of the earth. These 
places or parts can easily be defined by monuments 
which have been the same in all ages ; and by the geo- 
graphical lines of longitude and latitude. All great 
events did not occur within the lines presently to be 
mentioned. But those which did not, (and these are 
few during the first four thousand four hundred and 
seventy-six years) began within these lines, and were 
carried on in reference to some power, or government, 
seated within them, and by agents who acted in refer- 
ence to such power or government. Towards the close 
of this historical sketch, and especially within the last 
three hundred years, the scene of action is more exten- 
sive ; and includes the discovery and settlement of our 
own country. 

§ 12. The scenes of ancient history will be. found with- 
in these lines : Suppose one to stand at the south-eastern 
point of the Mediterranean Sea, on the line of the 31st 
degree of northern latitude, facing the north. From 
that point he goes north, on the 35th degree of east 
longitude, (computing from the Royal Observatory at 
Greenwich, England) by the eastern shore of the Med- 
iterranean, four hundred miles to the north-eastern 
point of that sea ; and thence, on the same line of lon- 
gitude, three hundred miles further to the 41st degree of 
north latitude on the south side of the Black Sea. He 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. I7 

then faces east and goes on this line of latitude eight 
hundred miles to the 50th degree of east longitude, 
which will be found on the westwardly side of the Cas- 
pian Sea. He then faces south, and goes on this line of 
longitude seven hundred miles to the 31st degree of 
north latitude. He then faces west, and passing on this 
line of latitude, crosses the Persian gulf, near its north- 
wardly end, and the great desert of Arabia, and comes 
£igain in about one thousand miles, to the south-east point 
of the Mediterranean. Within this square, which will 
be referred to in the following pages as the square in 
Asia, happened the most important events of ancient his- 
tory during the first four thousand years. 

§ 13. Standing at this south-eastern point of the Med- 
iterranean and facing the south, one would have before 
him, at the distance of about eighty miles, a little on the 
right hand, the northwardly end of one arm of the Red 
Sea; and at the like distance, a little on the left, the 
other arm of that sea. These two arms extend south- 
wardly, and form a point at the Red Sea, about two 
hundred and twenty miles from the Mediterranean. Be- 
tween these two arms the Israelites wandered during 
their forty years in the wilderness. 

§ 14. Departing again from the same south-eastern 
point of the Mediterranean, and going west on the 31st 
degree of north latitude, two hundred miles, and then 
facing south, one would have, at the distance of about 
seventy miles on his right side, the western mouth of the 
Nile ; and at the like distance on his left side, its most 
eastwardly mouth. At the distance of about fifty miles, 
directly south, he would find the point, where the Nile 
divides into branches. On the west of this dividing point 
is Grand Cairo, the present capital of Egypt. About 
ten miles further south, on the west side of the river, was 
Memphis, the city in which Joseph dwelt. Six miles 
north-west of Memphis, are the pyramids. The whole 
country from the Mediterranean to Memphis, and about 
ten miles beyond, is an unbroken level. The flat land 
within the shore of the Mediterranean, and the two ex- 
terior branches of the Nile, forms a figure resembling a 
triangle of equal sides, which is the form of the Greek 
letter D, which is called delta ; whence this territory 
*2 



18 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

is usually called by that name. It rather resembles now 
the profile of a pear. 

§ 15. From near Memphis, directly south, is the val- 
ley of the Nile, extending about six hundred miles to the 
cataracts of the river. This valley is shut in, on both 
sides, nearly its whole extent by lofty mountains. The 
greatest width of the valley is supposed to be about 
twenty miles ; and the least about four. On this flat 
land, and in this valley, lived the Egyptians, in latitudes 
further south than any in the United States ; that is, be- 
tween the 22nd and 31st of north latitude. 

§ 16. Returning again to the south-east point of the 
Mediterranean, and going on the beforementioned line 
north, to the Black Sea, and in the same straight line 
two degrees more, viz. to the 43rd degree of north lati- 
tude, making the whole line about eight hundred and 
forty miles ; and then facing west and going on this line 
of latitude about two thousand miles to the Atlantic Sea, 
a square would be formed, bounded eastwardly on the 
square in Asia, and between the 31st and 43rd degrees 
of north latitude, and bounded west by the Atlantic. 
This square includes the Mediterranean sea, all Asia 
Minor, and the northern coast of Africa. In this square 
occurred the scenes of the Grecian and Roman history, 
down to the destruction of the Roman empire, in the 
four hundred and seventy-sixth year of the Christian era. 
This territory will be referred to in the following pages, 
as THE SQUARE OF THE MEDITERRANEAN. The name of 
this sea is from medius^ middle ; and terra, land. That 
is, not a lake, but a sea, in the midst of the land. 

§ 17. The square in Asia contains about six hundred 
and thirty thousand square miles, which is one third less 
than the whole number of square miles in the United 
States. 

In this square in Asia, events occurred which affect 
most essentially the condition of the whole civilized 
world, at the present day. In this territory, a far great- 
er number of persons than now exist in all Europe, died 
by violence, pestilence, and famine. This was the seat 
of renowned empires, of royal magnificence, of splendid 
luxury ; but also of the most debasing vices, shocking 
profligacy, odious crimes, complicated wretchedness, and 
awful punishments. Here, that revelation was made, 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 19 

which was intended to chasten and purify the earth, and 
to restore rational man to himself, and to reconcile him 
to his God. 

§ 18. It will be seen in what manner and to what ex- 
tent, the learning of the priests of Egypt has infused it- 
self through various revolutions, into the learning and 
science of the present day. But deplorable scenes will 
be found, from like propiptings, to have been acted, 
again and again, in this memorable region of Egypt as 
well as in the square in Asia. 

^ 19. In the Mediterranean square, ambition, a cruel and 
desolating use of power, imposing grandeur, and human 
misery, may be found. But also, fascinating eloquence, 
scientific arts, examples of exalted virtue, and noble pa- 
triotism ; yet, deformed and debased by a religion of 
man's invention, nourished and perverted to disgrace the 
human mind. 

<§) 20. From such fountains have descended the streams 
from which the civilized beings in all quarters of the 
globe, now draw their moral, intellectual, and religious 
nurture. Let the hope be cherished, that as the long 
course of descent increases, these streams will become 
more and more pure, until the human family shall have 
become as sound and healthy as their beneficent Creator 
intended they should be. 



20 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 



CHAPTER II. 

From the Creation of the World to the Deluge, one thousand five 
hundred and sixty.-geven years. 

§ 21. All that is known of the world and of its inhab- 
itants, during these one thousand five hundred and sixty- 
seven years, and the eight hundred and ninety-six years 
next following, making two thousand five hundred and 
fifty-three, rests on the authority of the Israelite Moses. 
To what credit is this historian entitled 1 He is to be re- 
ceived as a high authority for many reasons ; and among 
them the following : He did most extraordinary acts 
among a whole people, who were most intensely inter- 
ested to know, whether they were deceived or not. That 
people received directly from him, the writings in which 
his own, and their history, are contained. These writ- 
ings have been most faithfully preserved through all the 
wonderful destiny allotted to that people. They are 
commonly received as true, and unquestionable, by all 
denominations of Christians, throughout the earth ; and 
by the widely extended followers of Mahomet. Science, 
and especially the philosophy of language, firmly sup- 
port the truth of Mosaic history. It has been translated 
into most of the languages of the earth ; and has been 
interwoven in all the absurd theories of religion, which 
pagans have invented ; though so deformed and obscur- 
ed, as to be discerned only by learned scrutiny.* 

§ 22. But the highest evidence of authenticity is found 
in the writings themselves, of this historian. His com- 
petency to give the history of himself, as well as of his 
countrymen, is a proper subject of inquiry. All who 
have read of his origin in the Bible, know that he came 

. * We are not ignorant of the discussions which have arisen on the 
books of Moses. But as all historians found, and sustain, their the- 
ories on the authenticity of these writings ; and considering them to 
agree with numerous geographical and historical facts, which can- 
not be disputed, for all the purposes of this volume, we take them to 
be credible, and entitled to be considered as true. 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 21 

within the decree of the king of Egypt, requiring that 
the infants of the Israehtes should be slain. It is known 
that he was exposed in a floating basket on the Nile, 
(whence his name, saved out of the icater ;) and that he 
was found, and adopted, and educated, by the daughter 
of the king of Egypt. 

§ 23. All the learning of that country, (and it was far 
more than any other then had,) was cultivated among 
the priests. This learning Moses had ; but it consisted 
mostly of imperfect systems of astronomy, and of the 
ceremonies of an idolatrous religion. The arts had at- 
tained to a respectable character, but morals were ex- 
ceedingly debased ; and the political policy was mere 
despotism. It was then far worse with all nations in 
Asia, except in Persia, where a better sort of idolatry 
was maintained in the w^orship of natural objects, that 
is, the sun, moon, fire, water, and the expanse of the 
heavens. The sublime morality inculcated by Moses, in 
the worship of the Deity, could not have been taught to 
him among men. The common motives to acquire, and 
to exercise power, do not appear to have governed him. 
His writings cannot be compared with others of the 
same time, as none have come down to us ; but they 
hold an elevated rank in comparison with those which 
subsequent ages have produced. It is incredible that 
any man should, in that age, have been able to conceive, 
and to write, as Moses did, independently of his divine 
commission. 

§ 24. The books attributed to th'is writer are the first 
five in the Bible ; and also eleven of the Psalms, from 
the ninetieth to the one^hundreth inclusive. Some writ- 
ers suppose that Moses wrote the book of Job. This is 
doubtful. These five books are known by the name of 
the Pentateuch from the Greek pente,^?;e, and teuchos, 
booh^ or composition. 

§ 25. The first of these books is Genesis from a Greek 
word meaning to he horn. The second is Exodus, so 
called from Greek words meaning to go out from. The 
third book is called Leviticus, because its principal im- 
port is to prescribe the duties of worship, which were 
conducted by the persons belonging to the tribe of Levi, 
and by the priests who were mostly Levites. The fourth 
book is called Numbers, because the first three chapters 



22 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

contain an account of numbering the Hebrews, and Le- 
vites, at the time of erecting and consecrating the Taber- 
nacle, while in the wilderness. The fifth book is called 
Deuteronomy, from two Greek words, which mean 
second, and laio, as signifying the second giving of the 
Law, when Moses came down from Mount Sinai, the 
second time. These distinctive names were given by 
the Greeks, long after the time of Moses. 

^ 26. It is supposed that these five books constituted 
but one, as the work came from this writer. Consider- 
ing it as satisfactorily established, that Moses was the 
writer, which he declares himself to be, and as all re- 
spectable historians have considered his writings as the 
foundation of history, they are to be relied on as true. 
They are not to be understood as declaring, that the 
earth was created about six thousand years ago, but that 
it was then brought into form, and made habitable, and 
that a new creation then arose. With such a theory 
geological researches agree. 

§ 27. Of the condition of mankind before the deluge, 
little information is given. It is not known what parts 
of the earth were then inhabited, nor what numbers ex- 
isted when the general destruction occurred. Little is 
known of art, science, or language, then. From what is 
known to have been the state of society, immediately 
after the deluge, it may be believed, that the prevailing 
depravity, was the cause of divine displeasure. There 
are learned discussions on the Mosaic account of the 
manner in which Nftah, his wife, his three sons, and 
their wives, were preserved from the general fate. The 
attempts to discredit Moses have not been successful ; 
nor can any reasoning maintain that the power which 
could create, continue, and govern, the universe, could 
not have ordered events in the mariner, which the sacred 
volume discloses. 

§ 28. Moses relates that the waters remained on the 
earth one hundred and fifty days, and that the ark then 
rested on Mount Ararat, a lofty elevation situated near 
the middle of the north line in the square of Asia, south- 
eastwardly of the south-east end of the Black Sea. Some- 
where in this region, Noah and his family resumed their 
station on the earth ; and from him, and his children, all 
who dwell on the earth are supposed to be descended. 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 23 

It has been regretted that the history of Moses was not 
more copious, as to the re-peopUng of the earth ; and 
that so Uttle is stated concerning the migrations east- 
wardly, southwardly, and northwardly from the places 
where the progenitors of the human family were first 
established. But it is to be remembered, that Moses 
had a single purpose in view, that of tracing the descent 
of the Hebrews. This purpose, it will hereafter be seen, 
is connected with the present condition of the world ; 
and that through the Hebrews must be deduced the 
mora] and religious improvement, and the social refine- 
ment, to which mankind have attained. 



24 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 



CHAPTER III. 

From the Deluge in sixteen hundred and fifty-seven to the Death 
of Moses, in the year of the World twenty -five hundred and fifty 
three, eight hundred and ninety-six years. 

§29. It is supposed that the family of Noah were at 
first nomads; a word in common use from the Greek 
nomades, meaning living on pasturage, or leading a wan- 
dering life, from place to place, and dwelling in tents. 

There are tribes in Central Asia who are nomads at 
the present day, and such is still the life of the Arabs. 
This mode of life is followed by that of cultivating the 
soil ; and this by the arts, and commerce, which rely on 
agriculture ; and from the latter, and from arts and 
commerce, nations attain to their best condition, when 
favoured by good government, sound morals, and ra- 
tional religion. Nomadic tribes may easily be gathered 
in favourable climes, into a distinct people, or nation, 
especially when a sense of common interest springs up 
to defend, or attack. 

§ 30. One mode of defence is to be within walls or 
cities. Thus, we soon read of cities in the Mosaic ac- 
count, in the regions watered by the Euphrates and the 
Tigris. The former river rises in the mountainous 
country near to the south-east corner of the Black Sea, 
and takes first a south- west wardly course towards the 
Mediterranean : and then runs south-eastwardly through 
the square of Asia, to the Persian gulf. 

The Tio^ris rises not so far to the north as the Eu- 
phrates, and runs nearly parallel to it, on its north- 
eastern side. These rivers are represented as uniting 
about a hundred miles before they reach the gulf of 
Persia. On the banks of these rivers cities soon arose, 
and several of them are mentioned by Moses, at an 
early period. Doubtless the descendants of Noah emi- 
grated from the territories watered by these rivers into 
the east, the north, and southwardly into Arabia. Of 
these migrations there is no certain account. The ter- 



THE HISTORICAL CLAS^ BOOK. 35 

ritory between the two rivers acquired the name of Me- 
sopotamia, from two Greek words meaning between the 
rivers. — There are only two events which require a 
particular notice, before entering on the origin of the 
Hebrews. The one is the confusion of languages ; and 
the other the calling of ' Abram.' 

§ 31. Moses relates that about one hundred years (or 
113) after the deluge, the tower of Babel was erected; 
and that while it was building God confounded the lan- 
guage then spoken ; and that the workmen were arrested 
in their labours, by their inability to understand each 
other ; and that different languages were then given to 
these persons. Those who have been disposed to scoff 
at Holy Writ, have considered the confusion of tongues 
as entirely fabulous. But however improbable historical 
events may seem to be, they are rarely destitute of all 
foundation, though they may have undergone the changes 
to which tradition, and poetical fancy are well known to 
subject them. In this instance (the building of Babel, 
and the gift of many tongues) some such event must have 
occurred, unless the Mosaic history be entirely rejected. 

§ 32. It cannot be denied that not long after the de- 
luge, there were distinct languages ; how many of them 
cannot be ascertained. 

In the time of Moses, the language spoken in Egypt, 
that which the Israelites spoke, and that which was 
spoken in Arabia, were all different ; and those who 
spoke only one of these could not understand those who 
spoke either of the others. There were also different 
languages in the square of Asia at that time. 

§ 33. When authentic history began among the Greeks, 
about four hundred years before the Christian era, it is 
said that the Greeks who traded to the Black Sea, car- 
ried with them seven different interpreters. At the pre- 
sent day, there are many hundreds of different languages, 
and many which have been, but which are no longer 
spoken. 

Some languages now spoken, are made out of former 
ones, as that of Portugal, of Spain, of Italy, and of 
England. Many languages are so radically different 
from all others, that they must have been original. This 
is said to be the fact as to many languages spoken by the 
3 



26 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK, 

Indians of this country, among whom one would expect, 
if any where, to find similitude, if not identity.* 

§ 34. It is not known that any people have ever in- 
vented a language. Attempts have been made to do this 
with all the aid of learning, and experience, and it has 
been found to be impracticable. 

In the early ages of the world, there was less proba- 
bility of success, and none of any attempt, since there 
was no call for the exercise of such ingenuity. It is sup- 
posed to be beyond the extent of human power to invent 
an original language. Whence then came languages ? 

Are they of human invention, or gifts of the Deity ? 
When those who deny the Mosaic account of the con- 
fusion of tongues shall satisfactorily account for the 
origin of distinct languages, and of so many such, they 
will have entitled themselves to some consideration. 

§ 35. On the second fact, the calling of ' Abram,' 
however obscure, and remote, this event may seem to be, 
it is the beginning of that long and wonderful course of 
events, on which the religion, which is now reforming 
and refining the condition of mankind, is founded. 

About three hundred and fifty years after the deluge, 
Abram dwelt at the city of ' Ur, in the land of the 
Chaldeans.' Where this city was is uncertain. It is 
supposed to have been eastwardly of the Euphrates. 
Idolatiy had already appeared in the native land of 
Abram, and even in his own father's house. 

The three first verses of the twelfth chapter of Gene- 
sis, contain the command and the promises of Jehovah to 
Abram. In obedience to this command he departed for 
the land of Canaan, the same which the Israelites after- 
wards obtained, at the east end of the Mediterranean. 

§ 36. Here the promises of Jehovah were renewed ; 
and in pursuance of it the name was changed from 
Abram, (an elevated father) to Abraham, tlie father of a 

* The Hon. John Pickering of Boston, (by whose labours the En- 
cyclopaedia Americana is enriched, especially on the subject of lan- 
guages) says, in his lecture on Telegraphic language ; '■ It was esti- 
mated, many years ago, that there are in Europe, 5b7 ; in Asia, 987 ; 
in Africa, 276; in America, 1214. Great as this number appears, it 
is undoubtedly below the truth, as a recent author (Adelung, Ger 
man,) makes the astonishing aggregate of 5860.' (This includes 
written and unwritten; but it does not appear whether it includes 
<Zea£? languages ; that is, those which have ceased to be spoken.) 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 27 

great multitude ; and the name of his wife from Sarai, 
my princess, into Sarah, the princess, that is, of many, or 
no longer confined to one. 

At this time, Sarah was far advanced in life, and had 
no child. Isaac was afterwards born. The name of his 
son Jacob, was changed to Israel. (Gen. 32nd chap.) 

The sons of Jacob took up their abode in Egypt, at 
the invitation of Joseph, who had been sold by them in- 
to that country. From these brethren came the Israel- 
ites, who dwelt in Goshen. It seems to have been a 
point much disputed, where Goshen was situated. The 
opinion most respected is, that it was on the flat land on 
the east side of the Nile, just below where the river di- 
vides into branches. Its extent is unknown, probably 
not more than thirty miles square. 

§ 37. Here the Israelites remained two hundred and 
fifteen years. Towards the close of this period, they are 
said to have been severely treated by the Egyptians, and 
to have been compelled to labour in building the first of 
the pyramids. If this be so, the earliest pyramid may 
have been erected about the year of the world twenty- 
five hundred, which would make the duration to the 
present time, three thousand three hundred and thirty- 
three years. But this is very uncertain ; perhaps im- 
probable. 

§ 38. Moses is said to have been on a visit to his coun- 
trymen at Goshen, about the fortieth year of his life, and 
to have then slain an Egyptian, for oppressing an Isra- 
elite. To avoid the consequences of this act, he fled east- 
wardly, into Midian, on the east side of the eastwardly 
arm of the Red Sea, where he was received by Jethro, a 
pastoral prince of that country, and whose daughter 
Zepporah, he married. He dwelt here forty years, and 
while with the flocks, at Mount Horeb, the miracle of 
the burning bush occurred, (A. M. 2513) when he was 
commanded to return to Egypt, and liberate the Israelites. 
This commission was executed in the same year, by 
the afflictions which were visited on the Egyptians, on 
the successive refusals of the king to permit the solicited 
departure. (4 to 12 of Exodus.) 

§ 39. The Israelites having gone out of Egypt, wan- 
dered forty years between the two arms of the Red Sea, 
South of the south-east corner of the Mediterranean ; 



28 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

having twice gone near to the land of Canaan, promised 
to their progenitor Abraham. 

This long sojourn in the wilderness, is supposed to 
have been intended to raise up a new generation, who 
were strangers to the idolatry and vices of Egypt. It 
may be supposed, also, that the religious ceremonies in- 
stituted by Moses, were intended to counteract the influ- 
ence of the idolatrous worship, which was observed by 
all the neighbouring nations. 

In the year two thousand five hundred and fifty-three, 
Moses renews the covenant with Israel, and dies aged 
one hundred and twenty years, without having entered 
the promised land. 

^40. On Joshua his successor, devolved the duty of 
finding the way to their destined abode. The whole 
number of the Israelites at this time is uncertain. In the 
second year after departing from Egypt, they appear to 
have had about six hundred and three thousand men, 
over twenty years of age, who were capable of bearing 
arms, besides the tribe of Levi, who were appointed to 
the service of the tabernacle. 

Perhaps the whole number of Israelites of both sexes 
and all ages, may have been two and a half millions. 
But this is very uncertain, as many events happened in 
these forty years, which may have afi*ected the whole 
amount, at the time of Moses' death. 

§ 41. At this time the Israelites had advanced north- 
wardly, by the east side of the Dead Sea, to the point 
where the line of east longitude 36.25 intersects the line 
of north latitude 3S, on the east side of the river Jordan. 
From this point a line drawn due west to the Mediterra- 
nean would be about eighty-two miles in length, termi- 
nating near to Joppa. 

The mountains Peor, Nebo, and Pisgah, are peaks 
among many mountains, which are situate a little east of 
Jordan, and a little north of latitude 32. This celebrated 
river Jordan, originates in fountains among the moun- 
tains of Lebanon. It runs nearly south, parallel with 
the east end of the Mediterranean, and at the distance 
from it of about fifty miles. At about twenty miles from 
its sources, it crosses the 33rd degree of latitude, and 
immediately after forms lake Meron. About twenty-five 
miles further south, it forms the lake of Genesareth, or 



THE HJSTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 39 

sea of Galilee, perhaps fifteen miles long, and ten broad. 
It leaves this lake and runs about fifty miles further, and 
falls into the Dead Sea, or lake Asphaltites, called also 
the Salt Sea, 

^ 42. This sea is about seventy miles long and of an 
average width of about eighteen miles. There is no out- 
let from this lake. Evaporation accounts for its not 
overflowing. It covers the ancient and beautiful vale of 
Siddim, in which were the cities of Sodom and Gomorrha, 
and three others, all of which were governed by kings ; 
and all of which were destroyed by fire from heaven, in 
the year of the world two thousand one hundred and 
seven, in punishment for the odious iniquity of its inhab- 
itants. The region round about this sea is represented 
by modern travellers as uninhabited, barren, and des- 
olate, rarely seen by any persons except wandering 
Arabs. 

Moses is supposed to have been buried in the plains of 
Moab, east of the Jordan ; but the place is unknown. 
He died at the age of one hundred and twenty. '•His 
eye was not dim; nor his natural force abated.'' 



30 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 



CHAPTER IV. 

Topography of the Promised Land. 

§ 43. On the death of Moses, God commanded Joshua 
to lead the Israelites over the Jordan into the land which 
he had promised to the descendants of Abraham. 

It will be useful to consider, here, what was then the 
condition of the promised land. That which the Israel- 
ites soon took possession of, was not all which was pro- 
mised, for it was not until king David's time, four hun- 
dred and thirty-seven years afterwards, that all was 
possessed, which is mentioned in the first chapter of 
Joshua. 

§ 44. The territory taken by the tribes which Moses 
had led, is a very small one, considered in relation to 
the numbers of persons who dwelt therein, and the im- 
portance of the events which occurred within its limits. 

It lies between the 31st and 34th parallels of north 
latitude, and does not extend quite up to the latter ; its 
whole length may be about one hundred and eighty 
miles. 

It was bounded westwardly by the Mediterranean ; 
southwardly it came down near to the 31st degree of 
latitude. Between the Mediterranean and Dead Sea, it 
was about sixty miles wide ; just above the Dead Sea, it 
was about ninety miles wdde ; and thence it is more and 
more narrow, going northwardly ; and at the upper end 
are the mountains of Lebanon, where its breadth may be 
about forty miles. 

^ 45. The Israelites did not possess all of this terri- 
tory. They had bjit a small portion of the shore of the 
Mediterranean. 

The Philistines held a space of about sixty miles by 
ten, extending northwardly along the sea shore, from the 
31st degree of latitude. Eighteen miles north of the 33d 
degree of latitude, on the shore, was the city of Tyre ; 
and twenty miles further north, the city of Sidon ; neither 
of which celebrated cities ever belonged to the Israelites. 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 31 

About seventy miles nearly east of Sidon, was the an- 
cient and famous city of Damascus. The coast includ- 
ing Sidon, and Tyre, and a strip of land extending 
a short distance north of Sidon and south of Tyre, and a 
few miles eastwardly from the coast towards the moun- 
tains, was the position of the kingdom of Phoenicia; 
which though small, makes a considerable figure in his'- 
tory. Its territories were at one time more extensive 
along the coast. The original inhabitants were descend- 
ants of Canaan, the son of Ham, and grandson of Noah, 
and on whom the curse of Noah fell, for his unfilial con- 
duct. The name Phoenicians was given to these Cana- 
anites by the Greeks ; and under that name they are 
celebrated for commerce, for distant discoveries, for 
inventions, and for high attainments in the arts. It is 
thought that they had the knowledge of letters from 
Egypt ; but this is very uncertain. 

§ 46. Very little is known of the events which had oc- 
curred in the square of Asia, in the long lapse of nearly 
nine hundred years, from the deluge to the death of 
Moses. In that space of time, numbers and riches must 
have greatly increased. Numerous and great cities had 
arisen on the banks of the Euphrates and the Tigris. 
There seem to have been many cities, or small king- 
doms, in the territory which the Israelites were to pos- 
sess ; each city, with a small space around, seems to 
have constituted a kingdom. 

In the thirteenth chapter of Numbers is the report of 
those who were sent to examine the land of Canaan, in 
the year two thousand five hundred and fourteen, the 
year after leaving Egypt. They were employed in this 
mission forty days. ' We came unto the land whither 
thou sentest us, and surely it floweth with milk and 
honey. Nevertheless, the people be strong, that dwell 
m the land ; and the cities are walled, and very great ; 
we are not able to go up against the people, for they are 
stronger than we.' 

§ 47. After seven years of conflict, the tribes of Israel 
possessed themselves of the promised land, and it was 
distributed among them by Joshua, in the year two 
thousand five hundred and sixty. 

Among the cities taken was Salem, where Melchisi- 
deck had been high priest, in the days of Abraham. 



32 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

This city afterwards had the name of Jebus-Salem, 
which appears at or before David's time, to have been 
changed into Jerusalem. 

For the purpose of understanding the future train of 
events, it will be useful to define the relative positions 
and distances of places. 

If it be supposed that one is standing at Jerusalem, at 
the time when Joshua took possession of it, the purpose 
intended can be easily effected, having first ascertained 
the locality of that city. 

Directly west from Jerusalem, is the Mediterranean, 
distant forty miles ; directly east, is the north end of the 
Dead Sea, distant twenty miles ; directly south, is the 
31st degree of north latitude, distant fifty-five miles. 

§48. Along this line of latitude, runs the northern 
boundary of the land of Edom, or Idumsea. Nearly 
north from Jerusalem is Nazareth, distant sixty miles ; 
nearly north-east, is Damascus, distant about one hun- 
dred and fifty miles ; nearly north-west was Memphis in 
Egypt, distant about two hundred and seventy miles. 

A little to the north of east was Babylon, at the dis- 
tance of five hundred miles. But this line crosses, for 
two-thirds of the distance, the great Desert of Arabia, 
which extends as far northwardly as the land of Canaan 
did. 

§ 49* It is supposed, that the route from Jerusalem to 
Babylon was not across this desert, but around its most 
northwardly extent. In Solomon's time it was undoubt- 
edly through Palmyra, or Tadmor, which is north-east 
of Jerusalem, distant two hundred and twenty miles, and 
distant from Babylon, northwest, about three hundred 
and forty miles. The travelled route from Jerusalem to 
Babylon, must have exceeded six hundred and twenty 
miles. The land of Canaan is a very different country 
at this day, from what it was in the time of the Israel- 
ites. Its numerous and lofty mountains must be the 
same ; but not cultivated, almost to their summits, as 
they once were. Its rich and fertile valleys are no 
longer such. Its indolent and barbarous possessors, 
during the last six hundred years, have so changed and 
obscured its ancient character, that the inquisitive travel- 
ler, who takes the scriptures for his guide, discerns little 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 33 

from present appearance, to assure him that he is in the 
place of which he reads. 

There can be no doubt that this country, poor and 
miserable as it is now described to be, must have been 
capable of sustaining animal life to a very great extent 
in the time of the Israelites, and even down to the latest 
period of their history. 



34 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 



CHAPTER V. 

From the time of Joshua, to the end of the Theocracy of the Israel- 
ites in the year two thousand nine hundred and nine, comprising 
four hundred and seventy years. 

§ 50. Commentators on the scriptures, consider the 
government of the Israelites to have been strictly a the- 
ocracy ; (that is, from Theos, God, and Cratos, govern- 
ment ; ) by which they mean the immediate government 
of God, in vrhich his will was communicated from time 
to time, to his chosen servants. 

The fortunes of this remarkable people appear to have 
been disastrous and afflictive, during most of this time. 
They fell into the idolatrous worship of their neighbours, 
and were repeatedly and severely punished for this of- 
fence. They were rarely at peace among themselves, 
and almost invariably engaged in wars with surrounding 
nations. During one hundred and twenty years of the 
four hundred and seventy years, they appear to have 
been held in servitude, at seven different times, by con- 
querors. 

§ 51. They suffered most in their wars with the Phil- 
istines, who took from them the ark of the covenant, and 
kept it many years. They were defended by Sampson 
against these enemies, during twenty years. The life of 
this champion ended in the year 2867, by prostrating the 
pillars of the temple, dedicated to the god Dagon, of the 
Philistines, by which he, and three thousand of that peo- 
ple, were killed. This event occurred at the city of 
Gaza, on the shore of the Mediterranean, a little north- 
wardly of its south-east point. There have been many 
commentaries on the life and exploits of Sampson, who 
lived but thirty-eight years. Considering that he was, 
for many years, a judge in Israel, his life indicates a de- 
graded state of morals, among his countrymen. 

§ 52. Samuel, the most able and righteous man who 
appeared among the Israelites in all these four hundred 
and seventy years, was contemporary with Sampson. 
He was the last of that class of rulers who were called 
judges. 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK, 35 

This office seems to have been three-fold ; temporal, 
sacerdotal, and military. The circumstances of the birth 
of Samuel were remarkable. His name is said to mean 
' asked of God.' He is ranked among the prophets, and 
appears to have been the spiritual servant of God, in the 
aifairs of the Israelites, when they were in their most 
discouraging and hopeless condition. 

They at length demanded of Samuel a king, who re- 
luctantly assented. Saul, of the tribe of Benjamin, vs^as 
selected by Samuel to be the king of the Israelites. 

<^ 53. He was anointed by Samuel, a ceremony in use 
iat coronations at the present day. This was observed at 
an early period in the history of this people, and is said 
to have been prescribed to Moses. It was emblematical 
of sanctification of persons, and of utensils, to sacred 
purposes. It was, in fact, the pouring of oil on the head 
of the person, or on the thing which was so sanctified. 
The oil was composed of exquisite perfumes and bal- 
sams. Samuel anointed David, the successor of Saul, 
while David was yet in his youth. This practice was 
not peculiar to the Israelites ; it was observed among 
Orientals, independently of sacred use. The word 
unction, as applied to some intellectual efforts, may be 
derived from this practice. There is not much informa- 
tion to be gleaned from the scriptures as to the civil 
policy of the Israelites, during these four hundred and 
seventy years ; nor as to their learning, or attainments 
of any kind. 

§54. The impression left, after reading the whole ac- 
count of them is, that they were a turbulent, ill inform- 
ed and disorderly community ; more so, probably, than 
their neighbours, because there was not a sufficient weight 
of despotism to keep them as quiet as others were kept. 

David appears to have been selected by Samuel to be 
the future king, a circumstance connected with the great 
chain of events. 

Samuel died in two thousand nine hundred and forty- 
seven, about two years before Saul, at the age of ninety- 
eight. In the last of which two years the remarkable 
event of the witch of Endor occurred ; and which it is 
difficult to understand. 



36 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 



CHAPTER VI. 

The reigns of Saul, David, and Solomon, two thousand nine hun- 
dred and nine, to three thousand and twenty-nine; — one hun- 
dred and twenty years. 

§ 55. Soon after David's accession to the throne, came 
the most brilliant period in the history of the Israelites ; 
and that to which the most frequent reference is made 
at the present day. The reign of Saul was turbulent 
and disastrous. He was engaged in frequent wars dur- 
ing his forty years, and was at first uniformly victorious 
over the different nations near to Canaan, on the east. 
But he at length incurred the divine displeasure and 
was rejected by God, as king ; and David indicated as 
his successor. In his last war with the Philistines, he 
fell on his own sword, through fear of being made a cap- 
tive. David, the son of Jesse, of the tribe of Judah, was 
born at Bethlehem in the year 2919. This place, though 
inconsiderable in itself, is distinguished as the birth place 
of the Saviour. It is about six miles south-west of Je- 
rusalem. To this place Samuel went to anoint the fu- 
ture king, who was then fifteen years of age. 

§ 56. Seven sons of Jesse were presented to Samuel, 
who said that the one whom he sought, was not among 
them. David was pursuing a pastoral employment, and 
was called from the fields into the presence of Samuel. 
He was anointed, and then returned to his flocks ; and 
soon after distinguished himself by vanquishing, with his 
sling and stone, the mailed champion of the Philistines. 
The applauses bestowed on David were the cause of 
Saul's relentless enmity to him. David was then re- 
ceived at the court of Saul, and though in great peril 
from Saul's enmity, he had the consolation of the most 
affectionate friendship of Jonathan his son. 

^ 57. This person is represented as valiant, pious and 
virtuous. He fell in the war with the Philistines, at the 
time of his father's death. David mourned for the loss 
of Jonathan a year, and composed a funeral elegy to the 
memory of Saul and his friend Jonathan. David was 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 37 

eminent as a musician as well as poet and warrior. In 
the fits of melancholy, to which Saul was often subject, 
he was employed to console the disturbed mind of the 
king, by his skill on the harp. The adventures of Da- 
vid, while endeavouring to save himself from the perse- 
cuting malice of Saul, are of romantic character ; and 
are not surpassed by works which the imagination of 
modern days has produced. They show, however, a 
savage state of society; they are everywhere connect- 
ed with violence, plunder and crime. Yet David seems 
to have had, on many occasions, and especially on two, 
when his bitter enemy, who stood between him and the 
throne, was in his power, a truly magnanimous spirit. 

§ 58. After some years of contention and war, with 
Ishbosheth the son of Saul, for the crown, the latter hav- 
ing been slain, David established himself as king over all 
Israel at Jerusalem. 

§ 59. He reigned seven years at Hebron (south of Je- 
rusalem) and thirty-three at Jerusalem, in which city he 
died, (A. M.) (2990.) aged seventy-one years. 

The truth of David's history does not appear to have 
been disputed by any of the critics who have attempted 
to discredit the scriptures. The point on which the 
principal cavil has been rested is, that David was a sin- 
ner, and yet is described as a man after God's own heart. 
Certainly David was a sinner. He repented, however, 
most sincerely and humbly The expression that he 
was * a man after God's own heart,' is said not to have 
been justly translated, as found in the Bible in common 
use ; but should have been translated, that David was ' a 
person chosen to execute God's will.' 

§ 60. Excepting in the instance of transgression, be- 
fore alluded to, David deserved this trust. During Saul's 
lifetime, though David was his son-in-law, Saul sought 
him with an implacable thirst for his blood. Yet he did 
no act of revenge. When raised to the throne, by the 
unanimous desire of the tribe of Judah, he forthwith de- 
voted himself to the service of his people, and to the exe- 
cution of the law delivered to Moses. He subdued the 
enemies of his country, never lost a battle, nor failed to 
take any city, which he besieged. But he does not seem 
to have entertained the cruel, desolating spirit, which 
characterized war in his age, though he acquired great 
4 



38 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

riches by his conquests. To him, the promises made to 
Abraham, were in part accomplished. He was sovereign 
from the Mediterranean to the Euphrates. 

§61. He was held in honour, and respect, by sur- 
rounding nations. He enlarged, adorned, and fortified 
Jerusalem, as the city of the Lord ; and had prepared to 
erect a temple there in reverence of the most high. As 
an individual, David had severe afflictions. These arose 
from the disobedient and ambitious projects of the mem- 
bers of his own family. He seems to have received them 
as chastisements. He is represented as a person eminent 
for his personal excellencies, and as one who had attain- 
ed to high accomplishments. His Psalms, written at 
various times, according to the vicissitude of the events 
of his life, (though probably translated unworthily of 
him) are in such a strain of elevated devotion, as to 
have commanded the reverence of all future ages ; and 
are now used in all Christian churches throughout the 
world. 

§ 62. The point of peculiar interest in the life of Da- 
vid, among all Christians, is, that it was through him, as 
the son of Jesse^ that the promises so long before made to 
Abraham, were to be fulfilled. In what manner, will be 
seen in the further examination of this nation's history. 

Aware that on his decease there might be contentions 
for the throne, David made his son Solomon, king in his 
own lifetime. This monarch has acquired a greater 
renown than his immediate predecessor. During his 
reign of forty years, the children of Israel had, with the 
exception of an inconsiderable rebellion three years be- 
fore his death, uninterrupted peace. As the gift of wis- 
dom had been made to Solomon, perhaps among the 
best uses he could make of it, was to save his people 
from the hazards of desolating wars, so common in that 
day. 

§63. He married the daughter of the king of Egypt, 
and secured a friendly understanding in that quarter. 
He was probably the greatest merchant of his own times, 
or perhaps of any other. It is not improbable that neigh- 
bouring nations found it more profitable to trade with 
him, than to war with him. To aid his commercial pur- 
poses, he built Tadmor, (on the route to Babylon) and 
which at this day is spoken of, and especially by the 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 39 

celebrated French traveller Volney, as the ruins of Pal- 
myra. He had ships on the Red Sea, which were con- 
ducted by the skilful mariners of Tyre and Sidon. It 
does not appear what port in the Red Sea, was that from 
which Solomon's ships departed, and to which they re- 
turned. It is probable that his ships went to India, for it 
required three years to complete a voyage. He brought 
gold from Ophir, but where that place was is unknown. 
It is not improbable that his ships were unloaded, far 
down the Red Sea, on the coast of Egypt, and that his 
merchandize was brought over land to the Nile. This 
was, undoubtedly, the course of the trade between the 
Mediterranean and India, at at a later age. He dealt 
largely with Egypt, and especially in horses from thence ; 
which he sold to the princes who dwelt north of his do- 
minions. With the treasures left by his father, and with 
those of his own acquiring, he was enabled to build that 
celebrated temple, which is held to have been one of the 
richest, most extensive, and magnificent of the earth. It 
was seven years in building. The skill and taste of his 
own kingdom, and of neighbouring ones, especially those 
of Tyre and Sidon, were engaged in accomplishing his 
purpose. 

§ 64. The writings of Solomon, like those of his father, 
have found a place in/ the scriptures. It is to be regretted 
that in the decline of life so many of the truths on human 
frailty, set forth by him, were applicable to himself. His 
riches, his renown, his wisdom, and the splendour of his 
court, drew around him illustrious visitors. Among them 
was the queen of Sheba, who undoubtedly came from 
Abyssinia, down the Nile. She was probably of the olive 
complexion, and not an Ethiopian. This queen was very 
favourably received by Solomon. The royal race of 
Abyssinia for some time after this queen, were of the 
offspring of herself and Solomon. One of her sons was 
at Jerusalem, and partly educated there. He became 
at length intoxicated by his own glory, and was seduced 
from the paths which the wisdom he had sought, pointed 
out. He abandoned himself to enervating luxuries, and 
finally to idolatry ; and had one thousand wives of one 
sort and another ; till in the midst of unexampled pros- 
perity, he doomed himself to exclaim that ' all is vanity 
and vexation of spirit.' 



40 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

§ 65. The follies which dishonoured the gift bestowed 
on him, and which sullied his fame, were felt by his 
people, in the public administration. Dissatisfaction, and 
even the spirit of revolt, were spreading and strength- 
ening. This spoiled child of fortune, would probably 
have been awakened from his voluptuous dream, to the 
proper use of his wisdom, if his reign had not closed by 
death, hastened, no doubt, by his disregard of his own 
precepts. 

He died in three thousand and twenty-nine, at the age 
of fifty-eight years. 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 41 



CHAPTER VIL 

From the death of Solomon to the end of the kingdom of Israel, 
(from three thousand and twenty -nine to three thousand two hun- 
dred and eighty-three) — two hundred and fifty-four years. 

§ 66. Solomon seems to have been more disposed to 
secure to himself a brilliant renown, than to discharge 
the duties of a patriot king. He had prepared his peo- 
ple, not to preserve and obey the law of Moses, and to 
continue strong in union, but to follow laws of human in- 
vention, and to break into hostile factions. 

Immediately after the death of this luxurious monarch, 
two kingdoms arose, through the common miseries of 
civil war, the one comprising the two tribes, Judah and 
Benjamin, and having the name of Judah, and Jerusa- 
lem its capital, in the south of Canaan ; the other, com- 
prising the ten tribes, having Shechem, thirty miles north 
of Jerusalem, for its capital ; or perhaps Tirzah, six 
miles west of Shechem. 

§67. The capital of this northern kingdom (or king- 
dom of Israel) was afterwards Samaria, six miles north- 
wardly from Shechem and Tirzah. 

Soon after Solomon's death the ten tribes revolted, 
and niJfide Jeroboam, the son of Nebat, of the tribe of 
Ephraim, and a descendant of Joshua, their king. He 
aboUshed the worship of God, and rendered his adora- 
tion to golden calves, as some of his ancestors had done, 
in the wilderness. Abijah appears to have conducted 
an army on the part of Judah against Jeroboam, as 
related in the second of Chronicles, chapter thirteenth. 
The numbers engaged in this war are wonderful ; and 
lead to some conclusions with regard to the whole sum 
of population : — 500,000 men slain in one battle, are a 
surprising number in any age of the world. On this 
point some observations may be proper in another 
place. 

§68. The successor of Jeroboam was his son Nabat, 
in the year 3054, making Jeroboam's reign nineteen 
years : Nabat's was only two, Baasha treacherously 
4* 



42 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

killed Nabat, and usurped the throne. He exterminated 
the whole family of Jeroboam, maintained his place as 
king about twenty-four years, and died a natural death. 
His son Eleb succeeded him, but fell by the hand of an 
usurper, at the end of two years. Zimri held out as king 
but seven days ; and being besieged in Tirzah by Omri, 
set fire to his own palace, and perished in the flames. 
Omri succeeded Zimri and reigned eleven years. He 
built the city of Samaria in three thousand and eighty. 
Ahab, his son, then assumed the throne, and held it 
twenty-two years, and fell in battle. In the days of this 
king, Elijah the prophet flourished, as related in the first 
book of Kings. 

§ 69. Ahab married Jezebel, a daughter of the king of 
Sidon. Her history is infamous, in relation to the vine- 
yard of Naboth, and in seducing Ahab from his religious 
faith. The fate prophesied concerning both of them, was 
fulfilled. The dogs licked his blood ; and Jezebel died, 
and was thrown forth, and eaten by dogs ; (2 Kings 1 — 
35.) Ahaziah succeeds Ahab ; but for two years only, 
and is followed by Jehoram his brother. In this reign, 
(A. M, 3109,) Ehsha the prophet appears. In three 
thousand and twenty-one, Jehu rebels against Jehoram, 
and usurps the throne, and reigns twenty-two years. 
On the death of Jehu came his son Jehoahaz, then 
Joash, or Jehoash, between whom and Amaziah, then 
kingof Judah, there was war with exceeding hostility. 

§ 70. Jeroboam, the second, came next, and reigned 
forty-one years. In this reign, (from 3181 to 3222) the 
prophets Jonah, Hosea, and Amos appear. Zachariah 
followed Jeroboam the second, and was killed by 
Shallum ; who reigned till killed by Men ahem ; who 
was succeeded by his son Pekaiah, who falls by the 
hand of Pekah ; who in his turn is slain by Hoshea, his 
successor ; in whose reign, (in the year 3283,) the king- 
dom of Israel ends, by the captivity and removal of the 
ten tribes. 

§ 71. The violent death of so many of the kings of 
Israel is a clear indication of the character of the kings 
and of the people over whom they reigned. This was 
the common lot of royalty in the square of Asia. 

In the year three thousand two hundred and sixty- 
four, in the reign of Pekah, Tiglath Pileser, the king of 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 43 

Assyria, came from his capital, Nineveh, to Damascus, 
and slew Rezin its king, and then entered Israel, subdu- 
ed many cities, and carried away captive many thous- 
ands, principally of the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and the 
half tribe of Manasseh. Shalmanazer, the successor of 
that Assyrian king, appeared in the kingdom of Israel 
in three thousand two hundred and eighty-three. Af- 
ter three years' siege he took Samaria, and carried 
away all that then remained of the ten tribes, and 
among other persons Tobit, of the tribe of Napthali. 
These tribes are no more heard of in the land of Canaan. 
It has been a subject of great inquiry, what became of 
these ten tribes. On this point an opinion will be given, 
when the current events in the kingdom of Judah shall 
have been noticed. 



44 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

The kingdom of Judali, from the death of Solomon, in three thous- 
and and twenty-nine, to its termination in three thousand one 
hundred and sixteen, three hundred and eighty-eight years. 

§ 72. The kingdom of Judah lasted longer than that 
of Israel, by one hundred and thirty-four years. The 
succession of kings, and the length of time in which 
they respectively reigned, are as follows. In 3029, 
Rehoboam, son of Solomon, comes to the throne. 
In this reign many priests and other persons, dissatis- 
fied with the state of things in the northern kingdom 
(Israel) withdrew from thence, into Judah. But Reho- 
boam also abandoned the worship of God. In 3033, 
the king of Egypt, Shishak, took Jerusalem and plunder- 
ed the palace of Rehoboam, and the temple of Solomon. 

§ 73. Then follow in the order of succession, Abijam, 
Asa, and Jehosaphat. In the last reign, the removal 
from the earth of Elijah occurred (2 Kings, chap. 2,) in 
the year 3108. Then came Jehoram, Ahaziah, and 
Athaliah, an usurper, who kills all the royal family ex- 
cept Jaash, who is secreted in the temple six years, and 
who is brought before the people, and declared king, 
by the High Priest. He maintains his place, and slays 
Atholiah ; and repairs the temple. 

§ 74. Amaziab succeeds Joash, and is succeeded by 
Uzziah, whose son Jotham succeeds him. In the year 
3246, the prophet Isaiah appeared. He is contemporary 
with Hosea, and both of these prophecy in this reign. 
In the reign of Ahaz, who succeeded Jotham, and in 
the year 3263, (seven hundred and thirty-seven years 
before the event happened) Isaiah foretells to Ahaz the 
birth of the Messiah. (Isaiah 7 — 9.) 

<§ 75. Hezekiah was invested with royalty by his fath- 
er Ahaz, who in his reign had submitted himself to be 
tributary to the king of Assyria. Hezekiah restored the 
worship of God in the temple, and re-established the 
dispensations of Moses. In his sickness, Isaiah foretells 
his restoration to health, and gives him an assurance of 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 45 

the truth, by the return of the shadow on the dial. (3290) 
In this reign occurred the miraculous destruction of the 
army of Sennacherib, while besieging Jerusalem. This 
king of Assyria returned to Nineveh, where he was after- 
wards slain by his own sons. (2391) 

This brings down the course of events to the time when 
the ten tribes were taken captive, and when the kingdom 
of Israel ended. The kingdom of Judah continued yet, 
about one hundred and thirty-four years, being all that 
remained of the descendants of Jacob, under a govern- 
ment of their own, in the land of Canaan. 

<5> 76. Hezekiah still reigned, and appears to have been 
respected by the kings who dwelt east of him. In 3292 
the prophets Micah, and Nahum, appeared and pro- 
phesied. On the death of Hezekiah in 3306, Manasseh 
succeeded him, and reigned fifty-five years. This king 
was taken captive and carried to Babylon, but he re- 
turned to Judahj and died there. He was succeeded by 
Amon, who was succeeded by Josiah, in whose reign 
(about 3363) Zephaniah prophesies. Josiah made great 
efforts to restore the true worship, and to recall his peo- 
ple to their duties. The book of the law of Moses, 
which had long been lost, or forgotten, was found in the 
temple, and the worship of God restored. Jeremiah 
begins to prophecy in the thirteenth year of this reign ; 
and in the same reign appears Joel, and the prophetess 
Huldah. Josiah having gone against the Egyptians, was 
mortally wounded, and died at Jerusalem in 3394. Jere- 
miah composed lamentations on his death. Jehoahaz fol- 
lowed Hezekiah. Necho, (Pharoah, or king of Egypt,) 
deposed Jehoahaz, and placed Jehoiakim, a son of Jo- 
siah, on the throne, who reigned eleven years. 

§ 78. In this reign, 3395, Habakkuk prophesies ; and 
in 3398, Nebuchadnezzar takes Jerusalem, and carries 
Daniel, and his associates, to Babylon, as captives. Dan- 
iel never returned from Babylon. It is supposed that in 
the year 3399, Jeremiah began to reduce his prophesies 
to writing. Jehoiakim having twice revolted from the 
king of Babylon, was taken and put to death. Zedekiah 
was tlie last king of Judah. Ezekiel, who had been car- 
ried to Babylon, prophesies there (in the year 3411) the 
taking of Jerusalem, and the dispersion of the Jews. In 
3114, Zedekiah having revolted, an army was sent by 



46 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

Nebuchadnezzar, which took Jerusalem after a siege of 
three years, (year 3116.) Jeremiah was in the city, dur- 
ing the siege, and continued there his prophetic annun- 
ciations. Zedekiah having attempted to fly was taken ; 
and having been compelled to witness the slaughter of 
his own family, his eyes were put out, and he was car- 
ried captive to Babylon. In the same year Jerusalem 
and the temple were plundered and burnt ; and all the 
inhabitants of the cities, and country, except the inferior 
classes, were carried away to Babylon. 

§ 79. This is the beginning of the seventy years cap- 
tivity foretold by Jeremiah in chapter xxv. It appears 
that Jeremiah was not among the number of the cap- 
tives, but that he was afterwards carried by his own 
countrymen into Egypt, where he is supposed to have 
died. The population of Canaan, that is, of the two 
kingdoms of Israel, and Judah, is not easily estimated. 
The only mention of numbers is in 2 Samuel xxiv ; and 
1 Chronicles xxi. In the former the number in Israel is 
stated at 800,000j in the latter 1,100,000; and in Judah, 
in the former at ;500,000, in the latter 470,000. These 
estimates apply to the same time. The difference be-^ 
tween these, two statements is thus accounted for ; in the 
one case the. armed men are included, and in the other 
not. If 300,000 for the armed men, be added to 500,000,. 
in the one case ; and 30,000 of the same descriptian be 
added to 470,000 in the other, the numbers accord. Such 
is said to have been the armed force of the two kingdoms, 
which is a very great number, when the extent of terri- 
tory is considered ; and also when compared with mod- 
ern armies. 

§80. These are very insufficient materials for esti- 
mating the whole population. If there were 1,600,000 
males above twenty years of age in; the two kingdoms, 
there must have been over six millions and a half in 
both kingdoms, of all ages and both sexes ; which is a 
surprising number for that territory, (about three quar- 
ters as large as Massachusetts) but Judea must have been 
very populous. It is the opinion of Rennell (author of 
the ' Geography of Herodotus,') that the whole of the 
ten tribes were not carried away, but only the higher 
classes. He makes an elaborate discussion of this sub- 
lect, and concludes, that those who were carried away. 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 47 

were not kept together, but were separated and dispers- 
ed in Asia, and were soon intermingled with the popula- 
tion of that vast country, and the national character 
entirely lost. The kingdom of Israel was less national 
tlian the kingdom of Judah. Still it is said, that there are 
settlements in Eastern Asia, in which the Jewish char- 
acter is discernible. This is now merely a question of 
curiosity. 

§ 81. Before leaving the Israelites, for the present, it 
is consistent with the design of this volume to inquire 
into the causes of their prosperity, and of their grievous 
calamities. If it be assumed (as perhaps it may be) that 
every people has as free, equal, and I'ighteous a govern- 
ment as they are capable of living under, then the Israel- 
ites, for the long space of six hundred years, that is, from 
the Exodus in two thousand five hundred and thirteen, to 
the destruction of Jerusalem in three thousand one hun- 
dred and sixteen, appear to have been adapted to noth- 
ing better than a severe despotism ; and it would seem 
that they could be tranquil under none other. 

<5>82. The interposition of the Deity, his warnings, and 
chastisements, seem to have had no enduring effect on 
this headstrong people. When they were not compelled 
to unite to defend themselves from external enemies, 
they seem to have been busily engaged in conflicts 
among themselves. These were vindictive, cruel, and 
bloody. Their character was understood by Moses. 
They needed occupation, as all mortals do. This was, 
doubtless, the reason that their religious worship was so 
much adapted to the senses. The long peace in Solo- 
mon's time, and the splendour of his reign, probably sup- 
plied the demand for occupation, and kept them in com- 
parative tranquillity. 

§83. Of the means of instruction among them, very 
little is known. Education must have been limited to a 
few. We do not find any mention of schools, or in- 
structors. Little is known of the manner of administer- 
ing justice. What law they had, when they disregarded 
that of Moses, is unknown. It probably came from the 
mouth of the king, or of the priests; perhaps from some 
agents of the one, or the other. They seem to have been 
a social and a feasting people ; and the higher classes 
to have indulged in all the luxuries they could command. 



48 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

Their morals appear, at best, to have been of a low 
order ; their immoralities common and excessive ; their 
crimes often cruel and shocking. Their frequent wars, 
and their unquestionable valour, may be accounted for 
from two causes : war was the fashion of the day ; it 
was indispensable to defend, and delightful then, as now, 
to conquer ; but war was then, as it is not now, the 
means not only of conquering, but of annihilating ene- 
mies, or making them slaves. It was then, as now, held 
to be glorious. It was then a means of growing rich on 
one side or the other, but now, both sides are the poorer 
from wars, 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 49 



CHAPTER IX. 

The Square in Asia. 

§ 84. Of the earliest state of this part of the earth, 
there is no other knowledge, than that which is given 
in the scriptures. The two rivers Euphrates and Ti- 
gris, have preserved their names, through all the lapse 
of time, and serve by their position to illustrate some his- 
torical facts. It is supposed, that the family of Noah 
increased around the foot of Ararat. This is two hun- 
dred miles south-east of the south-east point of the Black 
Sea, and three hundred west of the west side of the Cas- 
pian ; (latitude 40° N., longitude 44° E.) They soon ex- 
tended thence south-eastwardly, into the rich country 
between the tAVo rivers, called Mesopotamia by the 
Greeks, and on both sides of each. 

<^ 85. As there was no obstacle to emigration, from 
prior possession, it may be assumed that they extended 
eastwardly, and south-eastwardly, from the square in 
Asia, and into India, Tartary, and China ; and east and 
north-east from the Caspian. Historians consider this 
population to be the descendants of Japhet. There is 
reason to suppose that the portion which took possession 
of India, advanced in the arts and sciences more than 
any other of these emigrants did. 

§ 86. Not a line has come down to us from the people 
who dwelt in the earliest ages on the banks of the Tigris 
and Euphrates. All that is known (except from the 
scriptures,) is derived from Greek historians who wrote, 
at least, eighteen hundred years after the deluge. All 
historical statements before this time, are not more valu- 
able as instruction, than oriental tales. No profitable 
lesson can be derived from so much as can be regarded 
as true, but this, that in countries where the power is 
absolute despotism, there must be splendid luxury among 
the great, dependance and misery among the mass ; and 
that where religion is of man's invention, and conducted 
5 



50 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

by the partnership of priests and rulers, there must be 
ignorance, immoraUty, and crime. 

§ 87. In the tenth of Genesis, it is related, that Nim- 
rod, the grandson of Noah, established a kingdom, (pro- 
bably by gathering Nomadic tribes,) the beginning of 
which was Babel, Erech, Accad, and Calmeh, as cities. 
The land of Shinar, there spoken of, is the same coun- 
try in which Babylon afterwards appeared. The same 
country is also called, in the scriptures, the land of the 
Chaldees. The Chaldeans are supposed to have dwelt 
at an earlier date, near the south-east end of the Black 
Sea, and at some unknown time to have descended and 
conquered this country. There is also, in a note quoted 
by Whiston, in his translation of Herodotus, an intima- 
tion that the Chaldeans came from Egypt. All these 
accounts of earliest times, as stated by profane authors, 
must be merely conjectural. In the same chapter of 
Genesis it is related that Ashur, the son of Shem, went 
forth from the land of Shinar and built Nineveh, and 
Rehoboth, and Calah, ' and the same is a great city,' 
meaning, it is supposed, Nineveh. 

§ 88. If Babel means Babylon, and Nineveh, the city 
afterwards known by that name, they were among the 
most ancient of the world, if not the first. As there will 
be occasion to speak of these cities, it will be proper to 
ascertain their respective positions. Babylon, on the 
Euphrates, was about two hundred and fifty miles north- 
west from the north-west point of the Persian gulf, near 
the 32nd degree of north latitude, and the 44th of east 
longitude. Nineveh was on the east bank of the Tigris, 
a little to the west of north from Babylon, and distant 
from it about two hundred and seventy-five miles, near 
latitude 36° north, longitude 43° east ; and about three 
hundred and fifty miles east, from the north-east point of 
the Mediterranean. 

§ 89. The descendants of Shem, are supposed to have 
moved westwardly, and to have settled'cilong the western 
line of the square in Asid ; and to have extended into 
Arabia, and to have inhabited all the Arabian peninsula, 
lying between the Persian gulf and the Red Sea. Ara- 
bia has been held by the same race to the present day. 
All the nations which appeared in the north-west corner 
of the square, are called the Semitic nations from Shem ; 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 51 

(Shemitic.) Here, also, were the Arameans (modern 
Armenia) so called from Aram, fifth son of Shem. Here 
also was the kingdom of Syria, north of Canaan. The 
Aramean, Syriac, and Arabic languages are called, by 
the learned, Semitic, as having had a common origin. 

§ 90. On both sides of the two great rivers, and north 
of Babylon, and extending northwardly to Mount Ararat, 
was the kingdom of Assyria, having Nineveh for its capi- 
tal. In this kingdom was also included, at one period, 
the region of Babylon. The earliest notice of this re- 
gion in the scriptures is supposed to be by the name of 
Shinar, and next by that of Chaldea. The whole of the 
territory between the south end of the Caspian, and the 
gulf of Persia, was afterwards called Media. South-east 
of Media, and along the north-east side of the Persian 
gulf, was and still is, Persia. 

The limits of Persia have been very different in dif- 
ferent ages. The country northwardly of this, to the 
vicinity of the Caspian, called Parthia by the Romans, 
has been considered as part of Persia in some of the 
many revolutions of these countries. 

§ 91. It would answer no useful purpose to narrate 
the events true or fabulous as they may be, of early ages, 
in this square of Asia. So far as scriptural history is 
connected with them, events may be considered as truly 
stated. All others depend on authorities on which very 
little confidence can be reposed, and on traditions, and 
(it is believed) principally on those which Herodotus 
gathered in his visit to Asia. This writer has been dif- 
ferently esteemed by those who have assumed to judge 
of him. Lately his reputation has brightened in conse- 
quence of the accordance of his details with late exam- 
inations of Egyptian antiquities. Herodotus is said to 
have been born at Haiicarnassus, in Caria (Asia Minor) 
B. C. 484 years. Cicero held him in high respect, and 
considered him as the father of history by which distinc- 
tion he is often mentioned. 

§ 92. There were other historians who are sometimes 
quoted, but this writer has the pre-eminence from having 
actually visited the countries of which he writes. He 
honestly distinguishes between what he saw, and what 
he heard. It is supposed that most of the historical 
statements concerning this square in Asia, are derived 



52 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

from him ; and that they have been since adorned by 
Grecian fancy, and then treated of by following histori- 
ans, as though they were all founded in truth. 

§9S. No pretension is made to knowing what is true, 
or fabulous, in these ancient annals, until about the 
time when the account of the Israelites was suspended, 
to examine this part of history ; which it may be recol- 
lected came down to about 600 years before the Chris- 
tian era. The history of the events on the waters of the 
Euphrates and Tigris down to the same time, is briefly 
to be stated. 

§ 94. Herodotus says that the Assyrians had been in 
possession of Upper Asia 520 years. Others consider 
this as the duration of the Assyrian empire. Ninus is 
mentioned as the successor of Belus, and founder of the 
empire, and of Nineveh. (He may perhaps be the same 
person whom Moses calls Ashur.) This event is said to 
be about the time when the Israelites left Egypt, perhaps 
2000 years before the Christian era. His successor was 
his widow Semiramis, who is represented to have been a 
most extraordinary personage, for conquests and splen- 
dour ; when in truth it is very uncertain whether there 
ever was such a person, or when and where she liveid, if 
she ever did live. 

§ 95. Then follow names of rulers, and narratives 
which it would be useless to mention. 

There is no doubt that the kingdom of Assyria was 
great and powerful, in the time of Moses ; it is referred 
to as being such, at that time. When the safe ground 
of scriptural history is arrived at, we find (about the 
year 770 B. C.) a succession of kings, Pul, Tiglath-Pi- 
lezer, Shalmanazer, Sargon, and Sennecherib, all of 
whom are mentioned in the book of Kings. It was the 
last named whose army was destroyed by pestilence, 
when besieging Jerusalem, in the year of the world 3291, 
— or about 713 B. C. 

At this time it seems that Babylon had become a pro^ 
vince of Assyria, ruled by an Assyrian governor. While 
Sennecherib was pursuing his conquests in the west, 
Dejoces who had become king in Media, conspired with 
Merodach-Baladan, the Babylonian governor, to over- 
whelm Sennecherib. Whereupon Merodach set himself 
up as king of Babylon ; but he was put to death within 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 53 

liis first year, and was succeeded by Belibus, who shared 
the hke fortune. 

§ 96. The Assyrian king made his son Esarhaddon, 
(who was the successor of his father and the same per- 
son who is called Sardanapalus,) governor of Babylon. 
It is said that he was besieged by the Babylonians and 
Medes in Nineveh, about the year 3257, and that himself, 
family, and treasures were burnt, with his own palace, 
by his own order, to disappoint his enemies. Assyria 
appears to have recovered from this shock, for it is rela- 
ted that Nabopolasser, vice king of Babylon, with the 
assistance of the Medes, destroyed Nineveh, and estab- 
lished an independent empire, the seat of which was 
Babylon ; and that his son Nebuchadnezzar succeeded 
him, in the year 3399 ; or about 600 years B. C. 

§ 97- Under this monarch, as has been stated, the re- 
maining kingdom of the Israelites (Judah) disappeared. 
The history of this distinguished person is so minutely 
detailed in connection with that of the Israelites, that it 
will not be useful to do more than refer to it. Like 
many others, whom fortune favours, he became intox- 
icated with his own glory, and was deprived of his 
reason, and in the moment of boasting of his greatness 
and power, he was visited with the misery of believing 
himself to have been transformed into an ox. He as- 
sumed the deportment of that animal, and moved on 
his hands and feet as though he were really such, during 
seven years, when his understanding was restored. 
The prophet Daniel was raised to great dignity and 
honour under Nebuchadnezzar. This reign continued 
43 years and ended A. M. 3442. 

§ 98. After two short reigns, Belshazzar was king, 
when Cyrus the Persian dethroned him, and took Baby- 
lon in the year 538 B. C. It was thenceforward part 
of the Persian empire until the Grecian, Alexander 
the Great, became master of these ancient king- 
doms. Under Nebuchadnezzar, in profane history, 
Babylon was called the chief city of the whole earth, 
and the empire was called by the name of Chaldea. 
Babylon is supposed then to have attained to its high- 
est splendour. In the scriptures it is spoken of as 
*the great;' 'the praise of the whole earth;' 'the 
beauty of the Chaldees' excellency ; ' ' the lady of king- 
5* 



54 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

doms ; ' ' the tender and delicate, and given to pleas- 



ures.' 



§99. One finds, in many books, descriptions of Baby- 
lon, all of which are copied from Herodotus. No doubt 
he was at Babylon about 2280 years ago ; or near about 
the year 450 B. C. Three questions may arise on his 
statement. 1. Has his work been truly translated 1 
2. If it has been, did he intend measurements as his 
translators understand them 1 3. Has he given an im- 
probable, or a true account of Babylon ? — He is stated 
to have said, that the city was a square of fifteen miles 
on each side ; each gate opening on a street 200 feet 
broad, and running straight fifteen miles ; walls 350 feet 
high, and hanging gardens overlooking the walls. He 
describes the palace, and then the temple of Belus, as 
600 feet at its base and 600 feet high ; and that on the 
top of the wall there were watch towers, on each side, 
opposite each other ; between which a chariot and four 
might turn ; that an immense ditch surrounded this 
wall ; that the houses were three or four stories high. 
His descriptions are full of details, but he does not ap- 
pear to be corroborated by any other writer. Though 
human vanity may do any thing when it has power to do 
what it wills, yet there must be some motive in making 
such a structure, even for the display of vanity. Walls 
350 feet high, were four times higher than any wall of 
defence could need to be. 

A work entitled the Geography of Herodotus (publish- 
ed in 1800,*) reduces the square of tl^e city to 8J miles, 
and its walls to 75 feet high ; and its Ranging gardens to 
a height about equal to that of the walls. These gar- 
dens appear to have been raised on successive arches, 
the upper one supporting a square of 400 feet, with such 
depth of earth as to sustain 4arge trees, and the whole 
area irrigated by water drawn from the river. The 
temple of Belus this writer supposes to have been in 
eight successive squares, each one smaller than that next 
below it, and the whole surmounted by an enormous 
statue. It is supposed to have been a place of worship, 
and also an observatory. 

'^ 100. The Chaldeans were astronomers, and astrolo- 
gers^ and idolaters. If credit be given to this author in 

* By Major John Rennell, F. R. S. 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 55 

preference to Herodotus, still Babylon may well have 
deserved its renown. But the mighty city has disappear- 
ed. Travellers who have studied its shapeless remnants 
are not agreed, as to what these remnants indicate. 
Where were the walls, the ditch, the hanging gardens, 
the temple, the palace 1 are questions which are answer- 
ed only by conjectures. The lonely river flows where it 
did when it watered the willows on which the Israelites 
hung their harps, but the impious and depraved city has 
literally experienced the degradation of prophecy by 
Isaiah. ' It shall never be inhabited from generation 
to generation ;j neither shall the Arabian pitch tent 
there ; neither shall the shepherds make their fold there ; 
but wild beasts of the desert shall lie there ; the wild 
beasts shall cry in their desolate houses, and dragons in 
their pleasant palaces.' 

§ 101. All the historical accounts of Cyrus are derived 
from Herodotus and Xenophon. Those of the former 
came to him through uncertain traditions ; those of the 
latter are supposed to have been written for the express 
purpose of attempting to reconcile the Greeks to a mon- 
archy, by delineating the character of royalty in the most 
attractive manner. Cyrus was taken only as the block 
of marble out of which the product of imagination was to 
be fashioned. It is very uncertain which of the two ac- 
counts is most entitled to credit. That which may be 
taken to be true of Cyrus is, that he was born about the 
year of the world 3400, and was the grandson of Astya- 
ges, who reigned in Media ; that his father was a Per- 
sian, named Cambyses; that his mother was named 
Mandane ; and that he was born when Persia was a pro- 
vince of Media. The successor of Astyages is said to 
have been Cyaxares, and to have been engaged in con- 
quering all the nations west of him, even as far as the 
kingdom of Lydia, in Asia Minor, where Croesus, so 
famed for his riches, was king. Cyrus served in all 
these wars, and gained great distinction as a warrior. 
Lastly he conquered Babylon by digging ditches and 
diverting the Euphrates from its bed, leaving him a dry 
passage into the city. 

§ 102. The usual carnage and cruelty attended this 
conquest ; and Cyrus became sole monarch of the whole 
square in Asia, and even of the whole of Asia Minor. 
The little that is certainly known of Cyrus is found in 



56 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

connection with the history of the captive Israelites at 
Babylon. In the eighth chapter of Daniel, Cyrus's fu- 
ture greatness is supposed to have been foretold. He 
appears to have held Daniel in high respect and esteem, 
and to have reposed great trust in his integrity and 
talents. The most interesting event of his life, so far as 
those who now live are concerned in it, is, that he liber- 
ated the Israelites in the year of the world 3466 and 
B. C. 538. His declaration to this effect is recorded in 
a very solemn manner, in the first chapter of Ezra; and 
it may be inferred from it, that the presence of Daniel 
had produced opinions which were not before entertain- 
ed among those who were not of the descendants of 
Israel. 

§ 103. He is supposed to have reigned thirty years, 
and to have died in 3475, at the age of 70. Daniel did 
not return with his countrymen, who from this time for- 
ward are called Jews, in history ; a name not given by 
themselves, but by others. Cyrus was succeeded by 
Cambyses. Not contented with the dominions which 
Cyrus had left, he added Egypt, which he conquered by 
placing in front of his army animals which the Egyptians 
held sacred, so that they could not use any missile against 
the advancing foe, lest they should do a deed worse than 
that of submitting to be the slaves of a conqueror. 

"5^ 104. The character of this king is represented as 
cruel and barbarous. His reign lasted eight years only. 
After an usurpation by the Magi* of seven years, Darius, 
called Ahasuerus in the Bible, came to the throne in 3483. 
In the following years Haggai prophesies ; he had return- 
ed with the Jews from Babylon, and reproached them for 
not rebuilding the temple. Darius is said to have divorc- 
ed a wife named Vashti, and to have made proclamation 
throughout his empire, that the most beautiful woman 
should be found for him. That person proved to be 
Esther, a Jewess of the tribe of Benjamin, whose uncle, 
Mordecai, had educated her. Esther is supposed to have 
rendered most important services to the Jews, by influ- 

* The Magi of Persia were astronomers, soothsayers, astrologers, 
and monopolists of all learning, or in shorter phrase, they were 
priests of an idolatrous religion. From them, the opprobrious term 
magician, is derived. 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 57 

encing the King in their favour. The facts in the story 
of Haman and Mordecai occurred at the Persian court, 
which is supposed to have been at Susa (called Shushan 
in Esther) about one hundred and twenty miles directly 
north from the gulf of Persia, and about two hundred miles 
east from Babylon. This monarch attempted to extend 
his empire over Greece, and even to conquer the Scyth- 
ians, who dwelt northwardly of the Black Sea. He will 
be again mentioned in Grecian history, in connection 
with the battle of Marathon. 

§ 105. Xerxes the first succeeded him in 3519, who 
reigned twenty years, and was slain by some of his own 
officers. He is represented as a person, of odious char- 
acter. He will be again mentioned in connection with 
Greece, and the battles of Thermopylae, Salamis, and 
Platsea, all of which occurred in his reign. 

From 3559 to 3638 (seventy-nine years) there were 
seven Persian kings who are not worth naming; and in 
that time the usual number of usurpations, rebellions, 
cruel punishments, and domestic murders. In the last 
mentioned year, Darius Codomanus came to the throne. 
In the fifteenth year of his reign, Alexander of Greece 
put an end to the Persian empire, which then included 
all that Cyrus had conquered, and Egypt also. 

^5, 106. Historians have attempted to make some dis- 
tinctions favourable to the policy, manners, morals, and 
religion of the Persians. Herodotus seems to think bet- 
ter of them than he did of most other people whom he 
saw in these regions. But taking a long series of years, 
there appears to be no difference that can be Worth a 
definition. Separating, as should be done, all historical 
events connected with the Israelites (hereafter to be 
called Jews,) what is to be found in the history of so 
many millions of human beings as appeared in the square 
of Asia, from the year of the world 1657, down to 3657, 
comprising about 2000 years 1 Take out names of per- 
sons, and places, and the history of any one century is 
the history of all others. Barbarous magnificence ; 
desolating wars ; the most shocking crimes ; the most 
disgusting depravity ; tremendous reverses, and general 
misery. 

^ 107. But there is a lesson in all this, which should 
be engraven on the heart of every mortal who dwells in 



58 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

a land of rational religion, pure morals, free government, 
honest industry, and domestic security ; and where no 
one can call himself master of his fellow man. 

<§ 108. The coming of Alexander makes a new era, 
but not a very different one from those which had gone 
by. We shall here leave the square of Asia to visit the 
Egyptians, expecting to renew an acquaintance with 
Alexander, when we come down to the time of his ap- 
pearance in Egypt, as well as in Babylon and Ecbatana, 
as the lord of the earth. Ecbatana was the summer 
residence of the Persian kings, Shushan or Susa, their 
abode in winter. Ecbatana was about three hundred and 
fifty miles north-east of Babylon, towards the Caspian, 
and just within the eastern line of the square in Asia. 
If there be anything left of Ecbatana, which is doubtful, 
it may be under the site of some modern town or village 
of the Turks. 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 59 



CHAPTER X. 

Egypt; from the Deluge to the Conquest by Alexander the Great, 
in the year 3673, of the world. 

§ 109. Egypt is said to have been so called from being 
the land of canals. The Hebrews called it Mizraim, 
from one of the sons of Ham. In profane history, Menes 
is considered the founder of the Egyptian empire. Menes 
and Mizraim are supposed to be the same person. The 
Greeks called this country Aiguptos; the Romans, Mgjp- 
tus; the English, Egypt. The derivation of this name 
is unknown. A geographical outline of this country was 
made, in this volume, page 17. 

§ 110. When, or by whom, this country was first in- 
habited, is far beyond the reach of history, and almost 
of conjecture. The opinion, which so long prevailed, 
that Ham was a black man, and settled Africa, is not the 
opinion now generally entertained. There are reasons 
for thinking that Africa was not first approached from 
the square in Asia. No resemblance is discerned be- 
tween the language, manners, habits, or religion of north- 
western Asia, and those supposed to have been found in 
Egypt. The isthmus of Suez, was, in the first ages, as 
it is now, a sandy desert; the Delta may have been dense 
forest, swamp, and marsh ; the Mediterranean flowed 
much further south, than it now does. Herodotus says 
the time was, when it flowed into the valley of the Nile. 
On the other hand, habits, manners, institutions, and re- 
ligion, in Egypt, bear a strong resemblance to those 
known to exist in India; though one of the safest indica- 
tions of common origin, language, is not found in the 
two countries. Figure, colour, and hair, in the people 
of the one country, and the other, are supposed to have 
been nearly the same. But, whence the black race, with 
woolly hair, came, is a problem, which has not been, nor 
is it likely to be, solved. If the long continued efi'ect 
of climate be resorted to, then, successive generations 
of blacks, in northern climes, would indicate that north- 



60 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

em residence has a tendency to whiten the skin, and 
straighten the hair. This has not been the effect. Some- 
thing maj be said, on this point, in reference to the In- 
dians of North America, who are found, from the cold 
climates of the north, all the way to the like climates 
of the south, to have the same complexion, and the same 
hair. 

§ 111. Excepting the inferences to be drawn from the 
scriptures, concerning ancient Egypt, the source of ear- 
liest knowledge is the work of Herodotus. This historian 
went from the north side of the Mediterranean to visit 
this country, about 2300 years ago. He resided there 
some years. He saw, heard, reflected, and made a very 
interesting book. He does not appear to have seen any 
historical records. He distinguishes nicely between what 
he saw, and what he heard. As to the latter, it seems to 
have the common character of all tradition, which takes 
its colouring from the channels through which it flows. 
If this tradition were credited, Egypt had then been a 
settled country for 50,000 years. 

§ 112. In support of the conjecture that Egypt was 
first approached from India, it may be supposed, that the 
original inhabitants of the square in Asia, soon sent forth 
adventurers to the south-east, and that as much civiliza- 
tion and refinement had been there attained to, as ever 
can be, among those whose worship has sunk into absurd 
idolatry, whose political rule is despotism, sustained by 
priestcraft ; and where woman's natural empire has never 
been recognized, or known. From India, adventurers 
may have gone westwardly across the Persian gulf, along 
the southern shore of Arabia, and across the Red Sea; 
or, more probably, by the sea from India, to the eastern 
shore of Africa. 

§ 113. Historians are supposed to have followed Sir 
John Marsham, who devoted much of his labour to ancient 
geography, and chronology, and who died in England 
in 1685. They divide Egypt into several distinct king- 
doms, along the valley of the Nile, and the Delta. We 
discern nothing in all these ancient details, which is 
worth repeating. But, as like causes produce like ef- 
fects, there is no hazard in assuming, that there were in 
Egypt as has been noticed in the square of Asia, relent- 
less and exterminating wars ; irrational religion ; mag- 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 61 

nificent but barbarous splendour, among a few, subjection 
and misery among the many ; man, the lord of the earth, 
and woman his humiliated vassal, and never his com- 
panion, friend, and equal. The pictures which modern 
research has discovered on the granite walls of Egypt, 
and which have survived the lapse of ages, as well as the 
desolation of barbarism, disclose military triumphs; royal 
magnificence ; power exercised to annihilate, or enslave ; 
but nothing to show that the human race had then begun 
to take counsel from reason. 

§ 114. It is related that about four hundred and twen- 
ty-seven years after the deluge, Abram went to Egypt, 
with his wife Sarai ; that there was a king there, then ; 
that the king was called Pharaoh, not the name of the 
person, but of his dignity. In the year of the world 
2276, or six hundred and nineteen after the deluge, there 
was a king at Memphis, whose name was Ramesses Me- 
nos. In 2281, his successor was Ramaesses Tubaete, 
whose dreams Joseph interpreted, and' whose minister 
Joseph became. If it were possible to name the succes- 
sive Pharaohs, and the duration of their respective reigns, 
it would be a worthless labour, for it would teach nothing 
which it is desirable to know. We feel no certainty 
of being right, as to fact, even in attempting to point out 
the eras which are supposed to have occurred in Egypt. 
First, it is said, there was the dominion of the priests, 
who were an order of princes, or highly priviliged nobil- 
ity, and to whom Egyptian science is to-be attributed. 
Second, the shepherd kings, who originated from an 
invasion of an immense army from Arabia ; and who 
reigned in the Delta, and part of the valley of the Nile. 
Third, the conquerors of these, who are said to be of Ethi- 
opian origin, and who came down the Nile. Fourth, 
a sort of confederated republic of twelve departments, 
governed by twelve rulers, one of whom subdued all the 
others, and established the line of Pharaohs. In the 
time of this republic, the labyrinth is supposed to have 
been constructed. Some writers interpose an invasion 
from India, but we know not on what authority ; and that 
it may have been then, that a king reigned 'who knew 
not Joseph.' We pretend not to know how these things 
may have been. 

6 



62 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

§ 115. The Pharaoh who reigned in 2513, at the tim^ 
of the Exodus, may have been Apophis, the same who 
was drowned with his hosts in the Red Sea. The Shi- 
shak of the scriptures may have been Sesostris, who in 
3032, plundered Rehoboam's palace, and the temple 
of Solomon. Tharaca may have been the scripture Tir- 
haka, perhaps the last of the Ethiopian kings, and the 
confederated republic, may come in here. In 3388, Pha- 
raoh Necho made war on the Assyrians ; and also on the 
Israelites, in which Josiah was mortally wounded, and 
Jerusalem taken. In the reign of his successor, Pharaoh 
Hophra, Africa is thought to have been circumnavigated, 
which is very doubtful. Nebuchadnezzar conquered this 
Pharaoh. Amasis caused Hophra to be slain, and reign- 
ed himself, in 3435. Cambyses of Persia, sought his 
daughter in marriage, and on being repulsed, made war 
on Egypt; and in the reign of the next Pharaoh, (who is 
called Psamminetus,) conquered Egypt, and it remained 
subjected to Persia one hundred and twelve years, till 
3672, (with an exception of eighteen years,) when Alex- 
ander of Greece included this country in his conquests. 
§ 116. From this rapid chronological sketch it may 
'be inferred, that there is little or nothing to distinguish 
events, in Egypt, from the general cast of those which 
occurred in the square of Asia ; yet, the present age is 
intimately connected with what was in Egypt, as we shall 
endeavour to show. The exploring traveller busies him- 
self with conjectures over mounds of ruins, concerning 
the site of Babylon, of Nineveh, of Ecbatana, and of Su- 
sa. However well founded he may be, he does no more 
than to satisfy an unprofitable curiosity. But the Delta, 
and the valley of the Nile, are the regions which philos- 
ophy and science delight to examine. Here is the birth 
place of human refinement ; or, at least, it is to these 
regions, that we must trace the first beams of that im- 
provement and elegance, which, in after ages, have illu- 
mined society. But we are not to forget, that it was not 
here, but in Judea, that the true light came forth, which 
has enabled mankind to discern the true worth of all art, 
learning, and science. 

§ 117. The division of the people of Egypt into castes, 
seems to have been a permanent one, throughout all 
changes. The priests were the first caste, and had all 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 63 

the public offices, and all those connected with science. 
They were not only the managers of public worship, 
saiirifices, and oracles, but temporal ministers, and phy- 
sicians ; and probably, the only persons who were ac- 
quainted with letters, music, and intellectual improvement. 
The next caste was composed of soldiers of two classes, 
but how distinguished is unknown. Husbandmen, boat- 
men of the Nile, herdsmen, and tradesmen, formed dis- 
tinct castes. The swineherds were the lowest, and held 
to be too degraded to enter the temples. All castes were 
hereditary, and not allowed to intermarry. After Joseph 
had been made governor of all Egypt, and raised to the 
dignity of riding in a chariot next after the king, and to 
a new name, signifying saviour of the world, he was hon- 
oured with the further elevation of priestly rank, and 
qualified to marry Asenath, the daughter of the priest 
of Heliopolis, or the city of the sun. His wife's name 
signified belonging to Neith, who was the queen of Egyp- 
tian deities. Ephraim and Manasseh were the sons 
of this marriage. 

§ 118. Learning, arts, and science, — Within the pres- 
ent age, there have been laborious investigations of the 
antiquities of Egypt, in the hope that the meaning of in- 
scriptions, which still remain on granite ruins, (called 
hieroglyphics, from the Greek, equivalent to sacred en- 
gravings,) would dispel the darkness, which still envel- 
opes the early ages of Egyptians. Herodotus says, they 
had two sorts of letters, the one appropriated to sacred 
subjects, the other to common occasions. Beloe, a trans- 
later of Herodotus, intimates that they had three, and 
Warburton, a commentator (on the divine mission of Mo- 
ses), that they had four sorts of letters. Whatever may 
have been the signs of thought, used by this people, it 
can never be known what they were intended to express, 
beyond the explanation which a knowledge of the Coptic 
language may afford. For all translations from hiero- 
glyphics, must be into Coptic, and thence into some 
modern language.* Now, the Coptic, which has long 
been a dead language, and debased before it ceased to be 
spoken, by the addition of Greek and Arabic words, may 

* Klaproth's Examen critique des Travaux de Champollion (the 
younger.) 



64 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

not be the ancient language through which the hiero- 
glyphics can be understood. The curious, therefore, 
must wait until it be known, much better than it now is, 
what mastery science may attain to, over these, ^at pres- 
ent, unintelligible signs. Suppose the research eminent- 
ly successful, what is to be learned? Probably nothing 
more than mythological and historical records, which 
imagination finds no difficulty in anticipating ; because it 
is known, from what must have occurred in other parts 
of the world, all that the wisest of these early Egyptians 
could have done. 

§ 119. The Egyptians made some respectable ap- 
proaches towards a knowledge of astronomy, and are 
entitled to be considered as the founders of that science. 
They believed that the earth was stationary, and that the 
heavenly bodies revolved around it. But as the sun was 
seen to approach the north, and return to the south, they 
defined his path, and divided it into twelve parts, dis- 
tinguished by the names of the constellations, through 
which he seemed to them to pass. To these constella- 
tions they gave names, mostly those of animals. When 
the Greeks adopted Egyptian astronomy, finding the 
sun's path to have been marked by the names of these 
animals, they gave to it the name of zodiac, (from zodia, 
animals,) by which name it is now known. Among the 
many conjectures which have been given of the meaning 
of these signs, reference has been had to the great annual 
event in Egypt, the overflowing of the Nile ; and the 
signs of the zodiac have been thought to be connected 
with the stages of this periodical visitation. 

§ 120. The Egyptians were ignorant of the cause of the 
rising;, and subsiding, of the waters of this river. It is 
now known that the overflow of the Nile is caused by the 
periodical fall of rain, around the sources of the Nile, 
far in the south, (it is the sixth longest river of the earth) 
at the time of the vernal equinox, although the waters do 
not begin to rise, in lower Egypt, till about the summer 
solstice. The waters rise about four inches a day, for 
three months; and are three months more in subsiding, 
and retiring within the banks of the river. Sixteen cu^ 
bits, or twenty-four feet, is the desired rise ; less does not 
make a productive season, and much more is attended 
by disastrous injuries. When the waters were highest, 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 65 

the whole of the flat region resembled an ocean, in which 
cities and villages were floating. The rich slimy depos- 
it of the Nile, gave Egypt its fame of being the most 
fertile region of the earth. As it very rarely rains in 
lower Egypt, the annual overflow of the river was a most 
important event ; and was celebrated with religious cer- 
emonies. The Nile itself was regarded as a deity, as the 
river Ganges now is, by the Hindoos. No doubt, many 
of the ancient Egyptian inscriptions had reference to the 
Nile. 

§ 121. Geometry sprang from this river. The annual 
inundation eflkced all landmarks, and when the waters 
fell, mensuration and partition, were indispensable to 
appropriate the lands, to the several castes, to respective 
individuals, and to public uses. Here are discerned the 
elements of a science, which the Greeks carried to per- 
fection. The valley of the Nile was the highway of 
commerce between India, Ethiopia, and western Asia ; 
no small part of Arabian commerce took this route. 
The Egyptians made respectable proficiency in the arts. 
They are supposed to have used polished marble, to have 
made stained glass, to have manufactured linen, and to 
have dyed woollen fabrics, with lasting and beautiful 
colours. They manufactured a material to write upon, 
from a vegetable substance, or plant, called papyrus, 
whence paper. The Greeks called this biblos, whence 
(from being used in writing the scriptures) the name 
Bible, is supposed to be derived. 

§ 122. Religion. This has a most intimate connection 
with poetical and rhetorical learning of the present day. 
Rehgion is the natural sentiment of the human mind. 
The veriest savage, who has done nothing to elevate 
himself above his first condition, has sense enough to 
perceive, that the return of day and night, and of the 
seasons, and that life and death, depend on some cause 
unseen, and unapproachable by him. Reverence and 
fear of this hidden authority, arise in his mind. He 
brings home his perception of its existence, to his own 
senses, by symbols, to which he renders his adoration, 
and which he strives to influence and propitiate, as 
though they had wants and passions like his own. In a 
more advanced state, he raises temples to his imaginary 
deities, and places there the very figures of their being, 
6* 



66 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

and adorns them with emblems of authority. To these 
he offers his sacrifices, acknowledges his dependence, 
and renders his homage. Such originally, was not 
Egyptian religion. The first wanderers into India may 
have carried thither, from the foot of Mount Ararat the 
knowledge of God. 

^ 123. But as all things with which man deals become 
better or worse, under his hands, that knowledge may 
have soon become debased by monstrous fables, invented 
by priests, as being among the means of holding the mul- 
titude in subjection. Before this debasement occurred, 
Egypt was (probably) peopled from India ; for the inde- 
fatigable Champollion has deciphered an inscription, on 
an Egyptian temple to mean ; */ am all that has been, all 
that is, and all that will be. No mortal has ever raised 
the veil which conceals me ; and the fruit I have produced 
is the sun."* This is nearly the same sentiment which the 
devout Hebrews entertained of the deity. If such was 
the religious sentiment of Egypt, it soon degenerated 
into earthly symbols, embracing all the varied agency of 
the over-ruling and governing power. They created dei- 
ties. They peopled the regions of imagination with 
them. They assigned them duties in all occurrences of 
the natural world, in all the vicissitudes of human life, 
and in the changes consequent on death. Their deities 
had names, temples, splendid ceremonies, and awful 
mysteries. Soon these fanciful beings were represented 
by earthly objects, and the final degradation was, to 
worship the animal, and even the vegetable emblems, 
which their absurd religion had consecrated. It is diffi- 
cult to say, whether human condition is most pitiable 
when struggling in darkness on the confines of barba- 
rism, or when shrouded in that darkness which surrounds 
it when the light of reason is extinguished. 

§ 124. We are told by Herodotus, ' Egypt has cer- 
tainly communicated to Greece the names of almost all 
the gods. The names of Neptune, and the Dioscuri, I 
mentioned before ; with these, if we except Juno, Vesta, 
Themis, the Graces, and the Nereids, the names of all 
the other deities have always been familiar in Egypt.' 
As we must renew our acquaintance with these divini- 
ties, when we visit Greece, we shall stop here only to 
mention some of the peculiarities of Egyptian worship 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 67 

and belief. It was believed that the soul departed from 
the dead, to inhabit some common animal; and after 
transmigration through all the terrestrial, aquatic, and 
winged tribes, to expiate the sifts of life, it returned to 
take up its abode in the human form again. It may not 
be an extravagant supposition, that the preservation of 
the body by embalming was intended to enable the soul 
to resume its former tenement. But this is not consistent 
with the practice of embalming sacred oxen, and croco- 
diles. Pythagoras respected this theory of transmi- 
gration ; and it appears under the high sanction of his 
authority, by the name of metempsychosis in Grecian 
philosophy. Among the number of sacred animals, was 
a bird (resembling the crane) called the ibis. The 
destruction of this bird, as well as of some animals, was 
a crime punishable with death. At length, almost all 
animals, birds, and fishes, and even leeks and onions, 
were objects of worship. When a cat died in any house, 
the family mourned, and shaved off the eyebrows in sor- 
row for the loss. The worship of animals is a striking 
indication of Indian origin. Even to this day, there is 
a long list of sacred animals, in that country, including 
apes, dogs, and jackals. As to vegetable worship, the 
lotos holds a distinguished place in Hindoo mythology, 
as it did in that of Egypt. 

§ 125. The phenix was among the sacred birds. He- 
rodotus says he did not see one, but saw a picture of this 
bird, and that it was, in form, like the eagle, with crim- 
son and gold plumage. He was told by the priests, that 
once in five hundred years, it came from Arabia, bearing 
a ball of myrrh, which contained the body of its parent, 
and that it came to perform funeral honours at the tem- 
ple of the sun. Other accounts say, that this ball of 
myrrh, was its own funeral pile ; and that the bird put 
fire to the ball, and placing himself thereon, was con- 
sumed, but arose again from his own ashes, for a new 
term of life. This fable is thought to be an allegory, 
intended to illustrate the reproductive power of nature- 
It has been remarked, that when Cambyses invaded 
Egypt, he covered the front of his army with animals 
held sacred in Egypt, against which no Egyptian could 
raise a hostile weapon. 

§ 126. Edifices. The ruins of structures in Egypt are 



68 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

objects of wonder at the present day. They are such 
now, as to satisfy the modern visitors of that country, 
that Herodotus stated the truth, as to what he saw. 
These are, among others, the pyramids, forty in num- 
ber, in three different groups. The largest is thought to 
be seven hundred feet square at the base, and six hun- 
dred feet high. On the top of this, is a square of four- 
teen feet, whereon a party of officers, of Napoleon's 
army, dined, in 1798. By whom were the pyramids 
built ? At what time, and for what purpose, were they 
built ? We have seen many fables, and numerous conjec- 
tures, but not any satisfactory answer to such questions. 
The largest is the highest structure ever raised by hu- 
man hands. They are situated about seven miles from 
the site of ancient Memphis, and westwardly from the 
Nile. The sphynx is made out of the stone, on which it 
reposes, and is near the great pyramid, fronting the east. 
It has the head and bust of a woman, the legs, claws, 
and body of a lion, and the wings of a bird, all wrought 
from the same solid stone, except the fore-legs and claws. 
Pliny, a Roman visitor 2000 years ago, says, the head 
was one hundred and two feet in circumference ; the top 
of the head sixty-two feet from the plane on which the 
body lies; the body one hundred and forty-three feet long. 
It is now buried up to the back in the sand. There is 
no satisfactory conjecture, even, as to the object of this 
astonishing piece of sculpture. Herodotus speaks with 
admiration of the labyrinth, which may have been con- 
structed when Egypt was under the twelve governors, 
from the twelve halls, and the number and construction 
of the apartments. There were fifteen hundred apart- 
ments above ground, and as man^y below, all of marble. 
Herodotus says he did not see the lower apartments ; 
and was denied entrance, because the sacred crocodiles 
were there entombed. The labyrinth was about twelve 
miles south-westwardly of Memphis, and near the lake 
Moeris, which was of artificial construction, and which 
seemed to have been more an object of wonder, to this 
Grecian visitor, than the labyrinth. 

§ 127. The ruins of Thebes, about three hundred and 
fifty miles higher up the Nile, have peculiarly attracted the 
attention of modern travellers. They are remnants of tem- 
ples, and excavations in the granite mountains on each 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 69 

side of the plain, on which this city stood. Denon, who 
accompanied Napoleon to Egypt, says — that on coming 
in view of Thebes, ' the whole army suddenly, and with 
one accord, stood in amazement, at the sight of its scat- 
tered ruins, and clapped their hands with delight, as 
though the end and object of their glorious toils, and 
the complete conquest of Egypt were secured, by taking 
possession of the ruins of this ancient metropolis.' 

As one more indication of Indian origin, we may men- 
tion the toAvn of Elora, in Hindostan, two hundred and 
sixty miles from Bombay, six hundred and fifty from 
Madras, and one thousand from Calcutta. It is situated 
in a chain of mountains composed of reddish granite, 
and made by excavating the solid rock. The town is 
about two leagues in circumference. It is trulya granite 
city. It contains temples one hundred feet high, one 
hundred and forty-five feet long, sixty-two feet wide. 
These temples contain thousands of figures, formed by 
removing the surrounding rock. When, or by whom, 
this city was constructed, no history, no tradition tells. 
The sphynx is a common figure of ornament, in India. 
Compare these facts with the granite structures on the 
Nile. 

§ 128. Oases. — These are sometimes alluded to, in 
poetical and oratorical compositions, and may be briefly 
noticed, in connection with Egypt. Westwardly from 
the range of mountains on the west side of the Nile, and 
about one hundred miles distant, is another parallel 
range of mountains ; and fifty miles west of these, is the 
range of oases, in the line of north and south. Oasis, in 
Coptic, is said to mean an inhabited place. These oases 
are verdant islands in an ocean of moving sand. The 
caravans which traverse the deserts, repose at these 
grateful spots, where are found abundant water, and re- 
freshing shade, under date and palm trees. The most 
celebrated is that of Ammon, not in this range, but situ- 
ated three hundred and fifty miles from Memphis, in a 
line a little south of west, and one hundred and eighty 
miles south from the Mediterranean ; north lat. 29, east 
jlong. 26, in the route from the Nile, to Fezzan. Here 
was a temple dedicated to Jupiter Ammon., in which was 
a renowned oracle ; and here was the fountain so cele- 
brated by the poets ; and well deserving celebrity if what 



70 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

is said of it be true. Herodotus says, 'The Ammoiiiaiis 
have a fountain of water, which at the dawn of morning 
is, warm ; as the day advances it chills ; and at noon be- 
comes excessively cold. As the day declines its coldness 
diminishes ; at sun set, it is again warm ; the warmth 
gradually increases till midnight, when it is absolutely in 
a boiling state.' 

§ 129. This was a place of banishment from Egypt. 
It is said that the famous Athanasius, bishop of Alexan- 
dria, was banished to this oasis, about the middle of the 
fourth century, and died there. It is also said, that 
though he was a fugitive in the sands of Lybia, he return- 
ed, and died tranquilly, in his bishopric, at Alexandria. 
§ 130. Alexander the Great is said to have accom- 
plished a perilous journey to the oasis of Ammon, to learn 
what the oracle had to say of him; and it is said that 
Jupiter acknowledged him as his own son. The respect- 
able author, Rennell, (before mentioned) treats the visit 
itself, as an historical fact. It does not much concern 
the people of this day, whether Alexander went to Am- 
mon or not, or what the oracle said to him, if he did go. 
There seems to be no doubt, that Cambyses, about two 
hundred years before Alexander's time, sent an army 
from Egypt to Ammon. All that is known of this army 
is, that it never reached Ammon, and never returned. 
It was conjectured, that a strong south wind threw over 
this army a mound of sand, and that no one escaped to 
tell of the disaster. 

§ 131. The attractive objects of Egypt, hav^ drawn, us 
so far away from the train of historical events, it may 
be necessary to remind the reader that we take leave 
of Egypt for the present, at the time when Alexander 
took possession of it as conqueror, in the year of the world 
3673, and three hundred and thirty-one years before 
tlie Christian era. We are now to cross to the north 
side of the Mediterranean, to take a rapid view of the 
Greeks, who rose into grandeur and renown, on the 
treasures which they drew from fallen Egypt. 



THE HJSTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 71 



CHAPTER XI. 

tjrreece from the earliest times to the destruction of Troy, about 1180 
years before the Christian era. 

§ 132. Greece is the only country, in all Europe, 
whicli has preserved its name, its language, and the same 
race of people, through all the revolutions of ages. If 
one would make a comparison or an illustration, or ad- 
duce a test, in the fine arts, in poetry, in eloquence, or in 
patriotism, he resorts to Greece. If science or art de- 
mands anew, a comprehensive, and an appropriate term, 
it is found in the language of Greece. Such had this cele- 
brated country become, and so well was it entitled to be 
regarded as the oasis of Ammon, in the desert of social 
life, long before that light was shed upon the earth, which 
shows the true worth of all learning, science, and art. 

§ 133. Greece was most favourably situated, to acquire 
and retain its eminent renown. As a whole it lies from 
northwest to southeast, within the 36th and 40th degrees 
of north latitude, and between the 20th and 24th of east 
longitude. Considered as two parts, the most north- 
wardly one joins Macedonia on the north, is bounded on 
the west by the sea which separates it from Italy, on the 
east by the Archipelago, (a corrupted term from iEgean 
Sea,) and extending south-eastwardly from the Macedo- 
nian line to the extremity of Attica, it is two hundred 
and ten miles in length, and in average breadth less than 
one hundred. This part had three principal divisions 
(and many smaller ones,) called Epirus in the northwest, 
Thessaly in the northeast, and Hellas in the southeast. 
The second part called the Peloponnesus, (and now the 
Morea, from a Turkish term signifying the mulberry 
tree,) is bounded northwardly by the gulf of Corinth, 
westwardly by the Ionian Sea, southwardly by the 
Mediterranean, eastwardly by the iEgean, or Archi- 
pelago. It is joined to the first division by the isth- 
mus of Corinth. Its length is one hundred and eighty 
miles, its average breadth is less than one hundred. 
Here are found celebrated names, Achaia, Elis, Mes- 



72 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

senia, Argolis, Laconia, (of which the principal city 
was Sparta, or Lacedaemon ;) and many subdivisions. 
If Macedonia be considered part of Greece, as in the 
close of Grecian history it should be, it nearly doubles 
the extent of Grecian territory. The seas around Greece 
abound in beautiful isles, which are included when speak- 
ing geographically of this country. 

§ 134. To know how favourably this region was situa- 
ted to attain distinction, one should place himself at the 
southern extremity of the Peloponnesus, facing the south; 
lie would have due west on his right, the island of Sicily, 
-distant 400 miles ; due south the coast of Africa, distant 
300 miles ; southeast the island of Crete (now Candia,) 
distant 100 miles ; and, in the same course, the mouths 
■of the Nile, distant 600 miles ; further towards the east 
the eastern shore of the Mediterranean, with Tyre and 
Sidon, as part of Phcenicia, distant about 700 miles ; due 
east, across the ^Egean Sea, the western shore of Asia, 
distant 300 miles ; and the same course would pass 
along the southern shore of Asia Minor, and near the 
isle of Cyprus, which is about 100 miles from the north- 
east corner of the Mediterranean, and near that corner 
were the cities of Tarsus and Antioch. Northeast, across 
the iEgean, on the west coast of Asia Minor, was Troy, 
distant 300 miles. No region of the earth could be 
more favourable to the natural qualities of the human 
race, whether physical or intellectual, than Greece. 
Though situated in what the people of the United States 
may distinguish as far southern climes, it was, and is, a 
grateful place of abode, since the winds that blow over 
it, are tempered by surrounding seas, on all sides but on 
the north. 

§135. Whence came the Greeks ? The traditions of 
all rude people are to be received with caution. Those 
of early Greece are to be seen through mists illumined 
by the dazzling light of poetry. The gods introduced 
from Egypt were so mingled with what may, or may not, 
have had some colouring of fact, that all became fable ; 
and nothing was needed to make of the whole a mere 
vision, but to claim for the Greeks, a lineal descent from 
the gods. This polishing touch the poets imparted. 
Leaving these fanciful regions for something certain, as 
far as it goes, we are told in Genesis x, that these were 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 73 

*the sons of Javan ; (son of Shem) Elisha, Tarshish, 
Kittim, and Dodanim ; by these were the isles of the 
Gentiles divided in their lands ; every one after his 
tongue, in their nations.' Javan is thought to have been 
the progenitor of the lonians ; from Elisha is deduced 
Elis, or Hellas, whence Hellenists ; Kittim is thought to 
be Cyprus, and Dodanim, or Rhodanim, Rhodes. 
These are only conjectures on the meaning of scriptural 
history. It seems to be assumed, that in the earliest time 
there were shepherds and hunters in Greece, who must 
have come thither by the north side of the Black Sea, by 
Asia Minor, or the Mediterranean, but whether they 
came by the one way, or the other, it is now as useless, 
as impossible to know. 

136. Grecian history is usually divided into epochs. 
The first is called the fabulous or heroic age, from the 
first settlement, (whensoever that may have been,) down 
to the year of the world 2820, or 1180 years before the 
Christian era, ending with the taking of Troy. We pro- 
pose to follow this beaten track, but in a rapid course, 
stopping only to read inscriptions on enduring monu- 
ments, rather than to study them. 

§ 137. We will suppose all probable invasions, wheth- 
er by savages, or wild beasts ; and all the revengeful 
wars, and barbarous practices incident to a rude people. 
There were many immigrations from Egypt and Phoeni- 
cia, and probably from Asia Minor. With these came 
the knowledge of the Egyptian deities ; and it is said 
with Cadmus from Phoenicia, came sixteen letters of the 
alphabet, to which eight more were added in Greece. 
After the usual quantity of hard fighting, and its conse- 
quences, Greece seems to have been divided among dis- 
tinct tribes or communities, and among these there was 
established a council by the name o? Amphictyonic, com- 
posed of deputies from states, whose authority extended 
to all questions of general interest. What gave rise to 
this council, its precise powers, and when it began, are 
unknown. It is probably the first instance of a legisla- 
tive or judicial authority, applied to independent states, 
collectively. The only other event which is of a nature 
to interest the present day, is the Argonautic expedition 
undertaken by Jason and his associates from Argolis, in 
the southern part of the Peloponnesus, to Colchis, at the 
7 



74 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

southeastern part of the Black Sea, to obtain the golden 
fleece. This adventure was conducted by Jason in a 
ship called the Argo. The only knowledge now had of 
it, is through the poets, who have probably done no more 
than to adorn a common heroic, (or piratical) expedition, 
with the imagery in which they deal. 

§ 138. The religion of the Greeks is a much more in- 
teresting subject, connected as it is, with the elegant lit- 
erature of the present day. The mythology (a word 
used to signify religious fables) of the Greeks, came from 
Egypt. The gods and goddesses, and their origin, and 
powers, names and all, came originally, from the priests 
of that country. It is not improbable that Phcenicia 
made some contributions to the original stock. But as 
the Greeks became nationalized, and their own genius 
and inventive powers were devoted to mythology, the 
number of their deities increased to the number of 30,000. 
Soon after the close of the first epoch, Hesiod, said to 
be cotemporary with Homer, wrote a poem in which he 
gives the genealogy of these divinities, who are found 
busily engaged throughout earth, sea, and skies ; and in 
every vicissitude of human life ; and in all the imagined 
consequences of death. 

§ 139. Two circumstances may have aided in making 
this comprehensive religious invention; the one was the 
peculiar character of the Greeks; and the other, the pe- 
culiarity of their country, in which the mountains were 
, high enough for deities to dwell upon ; their fountains 
and streams pure enough for divinities to sport in ; their 
grottos, caverns,' and rocky recesses, awful enough 
to be the abodes of authority which could order human 
destiny. Thus mount Olympus was the home of Jupiter 
and of the twelve principal deities of his family. The 
range of mountains, in which Olympus appears, runs 
west and east, separating Thessaly from Macedonia. It 
is the highest range in Europe except the Alps. Below 
its lofty summits the lightning flashed, and thunders roll- 
ed ; and at brilliant noon its heights seemed to rise far 
towards the fountain of day. 

§ 140. This was deemed the proper residence of ce- 
lestials on earth. On Olympus Jupiter held his court, 
and along the neighbouring summits the immediate 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 75 

members of his family resided.* From these elevations 
the divinities descended to the dwellings of men, to a^ 
ford protection, punish impiety, or gratify their own 
passions. The Olympian range was not the exclusive 
abode of the principal deities. They had other favourite 
resorts, and even accepted, as dwelling places, the tem- 
ples which the piety of mortals raised to render them due 
honour. From the visits of these divinities, of both sexes, 
to favoured mortals, sprang that race of demigods (or 
heroes) who figure in the fabulous age. Among these 
was Hercules, a personage as well known, in these days, 
as he was in Greece. His achievements are numerous 
and truly heroic. 

§ 141, It is enough to show the interest of the present 
day in Grecian mythology, that students, whether they 
spend their hours of study on poetry, or prose, on sub- 
jects of religion, policy, war, or philosophy, are sure to 
find something of these deities in all that is sought to be 
known. The sacred nine are annually invoked in all the 
scientific institutions of Europe and America. It would 
detract nothing from the solemnity of the invocation to 
know, that the nine were originally only a band of song- 
sters who constituted part of the retinue of a royal lover 
of music; for poetry has long hallowed their divine voca- 
tion, and established an empire for them which no one 
would be impious enough to dispute. Many of these de- 
lightful visions would melt away if one knew of what 
elements they were composed. It is justly due, however, 
to the heroic age to say, that there was then, none of the 
absurd idolatry which disgraced cotemporaneous na- 
tions ; and that there was a loftier sense of morality, 
founded in the fear of the gods, than was manifested in 
after ages, by the same people, when they became more 
refined. It is probable that they had oracles in these 
early days, but their supremacy belongs to a later 
period. 

§ 142. It is deeply to be regretted that the indispensa- 
ble acquisition of the Greek and Latin languages, has 
been commonly made through diligent study of fables 

* A Latin poet enumerates the celestial family in these two lines. 
Juno, Vesta, Minerva, Ceres, Diana, Venus, Mars, 
Mercurius, Jovi, Neptunus, Vulcanus, ApoUo. 



76 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

little suited to the purity of youthful minds. There are 
purified editions of the Greek and Latin classics, which 
must be familiarly known to qualify a youth to be receiv- 
ed into any college. JBut there are still many passages 
retained, which a preceptor would blush to construe and 
explain to his pupil. The world, at this day, would be 
none the worse, if the works of Ovid had not come down 
to us. 

§ 143. The religious opinions and practices of the 
Greeks are not the only objects of curiosity and interest ; 
their music, architecture, eloquence, and language, which 
had shown themselves, even in the heroic ages, are sub- 
jects of real interest. Their language, especially, de- 
serves some notice. Before the end of the heroic age it 
approached near to the perfection which it afterwards 
acquired, by being familiarly written. The learned say 
of it, that it is of all languages the most copious, best 
constructed, most impressive, yet the sweetest, and most 
powerful. It was probably drawn from many sources, 
around the eastern end of the Mediterranean, and even 
further east. But it was moulded and adapted to express 
all the wants, passions, duties and pleasures of an en- 
thusiastic and aspiring people. It is said to resemble 
the Sanscrit of India, which is probably among the oldest 
languages of the world. It is the opinion of a German 
writer, (already mentioned) that the Greek and German 
languages are modifications of some far more ancient 
language, and that the Latin has the like origin. 

§ 144. The causes which led to Grecian distinction, 
may not be obvious at this far distant time. It may be, 
that climate, the peculiar territory in which the Greeks 
dwelt, and their division into small, jealous, and rival 
communities, had some influence on results in the early 
ages. The concluding event in this epoch, is the war 
waged against Troy. This has been associated with the 
literature of all well informed modern nations, through 
the imperishable poems of Homer. If the occurrences 
of this war had not been distinguished by this mode 
of narration, they would have held no higher rank than 
that which belongs to the wars of the square in Asia, 
of the same age of the world. But, so narrated, these 
events may have been among the impulses which led to 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 77 

the distinction of Greece. This comes more fully into 
view in the next historical division. 

§ 145. In the further consideration of Grecian affairs, 
no time will be wasted on military exploits, nor on the 
common course of tumult, insurrection, and revolution, 
by which one man was put down, and another substitut- 
ed. A battle is the same thing, in substance, in all ages, 
and among all people, with the exceptions which mili- 
tary men, only, can appreciate. Political changes spring 
up every where from like passions, and desires ; and any 
one of them contains the elements of all others. There 
are, however, some battles, and some revolutions, which 
have affected the general welfare of the human family, 
and these cannot be passed without observation. 

§ 146. The two poems attributed to Homer, are the 
Iliad, (from Ilium, another name for Troy) and the Odys- 
sey, comprising the adventures of Ulysses, one of the 
Grecian chiefs, after Troy had been taken. The first 
of these poems is an important material in historical com- 
pilations. It will be convenient to fix the time of the 
siege of Troy, relatively to cotemporaneous persons, 
and events, in the square of Asia, and in Egypt. If the 
ten years' siege ended with the sack and conflagration 
of Troy, in the year of the Avorld 2820, and 1180 before 
the Christian era, this was thirty-two years before Sam- 
uel was born, and while Israel was governed by judges, 
and ninety-nine years before the birth of David ; and 
more than a century before the wars between the Assyr- 
ians and Egyptians began. 

§ 147. How far are the facts stated in the Iliad to be 
received as true history ? Probably they have the like 
relation to the truth, which Sir Walter Scott's novels 
have to history ; or which pastoral life has, when describ- 
ed by poets, to the tedious labour of tending flocks. Yet 
this poem is instructive as to facts. It is doubtful wheth- 
er it was the work of one man ; it is even doubtful 
whether there was such a person as Homer ; and if there 
were, it is uncertain when or where he lived or died. It 
is generally supposed that he did not live earlier than 
from two to four centuries after the events which have 
given him a glorious memory ; but Dr Gillies (History 
of Greece) assumes that he lived within eighty years 
of that time. The impression left, on a diligent examin- 
7* 



78 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK, 

ation of many of the materials out of which the truth is 
to be drawn, is this : The Greeks Uke other rude nations 
had bards, who sang the story of pubHc events. They 
were received in palaces, at public meetings, at celebra- 
tions, and were chroniclers, and their memories the only 
place of record. From such sources Homer derived his 
knowledge ; and whether he only repeated what he heard, 
or embellished, or invented, are questions on which crit- 
ics have exhausted their ingenuity. 

§ 148. Doubtless at the commencement of the Trojan 
war, Greece was divided into small kingdoms or states. 
In that called Laconia, in the city of Sparta, lived king 
Menelaus, whose wife was Helen, the daughter of Tyn- 
darus. While Menelaus was on a visit to the island 
of Crete, Paris came from Troy to the court of Menelaus. 
He is described as the handsomest man of the age. At 
the marriage of Peleus and Thetis, the gods and goddess- 
es were among the guests ; and the goddess of Discord, 
Eris, threw among the company a golden apple on which 
was inscribed, ' to the fairest ' (detur pulchriori). Juno, 
Venus, and Minerva contended for the apple, Paris was 
chosen arbiter. Juno promised him a kingdom, Miner- 
va military glory, and Venus the fairest woman of the 
earth, as a wife. Venus was declared entitled ; and from 
this cause, influenced, in its consequences, by the malice 
of Juno and Minerva, came the Avoes of Troy. From 
this fable also comes ' the apple of discord.' Helen was 
the promised reward. She, of course, became enamour- 
ed of the handsome Paris, and eloped with him, and 
went to Troy. 

§ 149. The enraged husband of Helen roused all the 
states and kingdoms of Greece, to avenge his wrongs ; 
and an army of 102,000 men, borne in many ships, re- 
paired to the Trojan coast. The scene of the poem is 
on the plains around Troy. This city was finally subdu- 
ed by the stratagem of making a wooden horse, whicH 
was hollow, and capacious enough to hold many armed 
men. The Greeks having retired, leaving the horse on 
the plain, the Trojans supposing them to have abandoned 
the siege, drew the horse into the city. In the night, 
the Greeks descended from their concealment, and threw 
open the gates, to the returning army. This fable is 
often used in modern eloquence. Troy being laid in ash- 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 7^ 

es and Menelaus avenged, contentions arose among the 
Greeks, who divided into two great parties, and from 
this source comes the second poem, (the Odyssey) which 
divides the critics more extensively, than the Greeks are 
therein represented to have been divided among them- 
selves. That which is pertinent to the present purpose, 
is, the disclosure of genealogy, geography, political di- 
visions, religious belief, and ceremonies, as well as the 
manners and customs of the Greeks. All which reduced 
to common sense shows, that this remarkable people 
were superstitiously religious, rude and valiant warriors, 
sensitive, enthusiastic, and eloquent, and fit elements out 
of which to form their eminent distinction attained to ir 
subsequent ages. 



80 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 



CHAPTER XII. 

Causes of Grecian eminence, after the siege of Troy. Effect of 

Olympic games. 

§ 150. When such of the warriors as survived the 
Trojan war, and survived also the disasters following that 
event, returned to Greece, they had new difficulties to 
encounter, in the distracted state of things which their 
long absence had occasioned. During the next four hun- 
dred years, the Grecians seem to have been tormented 
with controversies, and desolating wars among them- 
selves. Their history, so far as it is known, presents 
nothing material to be noticed, in this general sketch, but 
this : Numerous colonies appear to have left Greece with- 
in this time. These colonies were established on the 
western shores of the Black Sea ; on the opposite shore 
of Asia Minor, where flourished the Eolians, next south- 
wardly of Troy, the lonians south of them, (around mod- 
ern Smyrna,) and the Dorians south of these, down to 
the southern shore of Asia Minor. Colonies were estab- 
lished on the opposite coast of Africa, and on the eastern 
shore of Italy, in Sicily, and probably even as far west 
as the eastern shore of Spain, where it is said ther^ are 
to the present day customs of Grecian origin. The Asi- 
atic colonies, availing themselves of peace and tranquil- 
lity for a long time, and of the beautiful region which 
they inhabited, are supposed to have made advances in 
refinement, and to have improved their language, and to 
have established some of the dialects which were after- 
wards found in Grecian literature. Distinguished histo- 
rians, poets, and philosophers are supposed to have been 
born in these colonies. Eastwardly of them was the 
kingdom of Lydia, with the kings of which most of the 
early wars arose. About seventy miles east of Smyrna 
was Sardis, (which there will be occasion to mention 
hereafter,) the capital of Lydia. This was the place 
of abode of Croesus, whose wealth has become a proverb. 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 81 

§ 151. That space of time in which those persons liv- 
ed, and in which those events occurred which have given 
to Greece its remarkable celebrity, will be found in the 
three hundred and fifty years next after the seven hun- 
dred and seventy-sixth year before the Christian era. 
The next object is to point out these persons, and events, 
and the causes of this celebrity. In defining these caus- 
es, the national character of the Greeks, derived from 
climate, numerous and independent communities, lan- 
guage, war, music, poetry, and eloquence, must not be 
overlooked. It may be supposed that such a people were 
well qualified to rise to their well known* eminence, 
if any competent impulse were given to them. It is be- 
lieved that this impulse was found in the Olympic games; 
and that the acts of one man, or at most of two men, 
revived and applied them to improving the manners and 
customs of the Greeks. All the consequences may not 
have been foreseen ; but they seem to be naturally refer- 
able to this great national institution. The Olympic 
games were not then new. They were first instituted by 
Hercules, whosoever may be intended by that name ; but 
they had long been discontinued. 

§ 152. The Amphictyonic council, or meeting of na- 
tional delegates, appears to have survived all the revolu- 
tions of Greece. Its place of meeting in the spring, was 
at Delphi; and in the autumn at Thermopylae. The 
former is supposed to have been so named, from its hav- 
ing been originally solitary. It is situated mid-way 
of Greece, N. lat. 38^-, twenty miles north of the Crisseus 
gulf, which is part of that of Corinth, and at the south- 
ern extremity of Mount Parnassus. Here was a cavern 
from which arose a sulphurous gas, which was supposed 
to be capable of inspiring those who breathed it, with 
religious zeal, and the power of prophecy. Around this 
cavern was the city of Delphi, in the deep recess of the 
mountains. At an early and unknown period, the priest- 
ly contrivance of the oracle, had been imported from 
Egypt, and this mysterious spot chosen for its seat of em- 
pire. This venerated authority was under the guard- 
ianship of the Amphictyons, and Delphi was almost ex- 
clusively inhabited by the ministers of the Delphic oracle, 
aacred to Apollo. The predictions and responses were 
delivered by a person (usually a female selected by the 



82 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

priests) who was seated on a stool with three feet, and 
thence called the tripod. This sacred seat makes a 
conspicuous figure in Grecian annals. 

§ 153. Any person might consult the oracle, on con- 
forming to prescribed rules. He was required to present 
a valuable gift to the god ; and to reside a number of days 
at Delphi, before he w^as allowed to propose his ques- 
tions. A favourable time must be sought, and improved. 
The response was to be deemed conclusive, and however 
ambiguous, no explanation could be sought. It is a hu- 
miliating proof of human credulity, that such a power as 
that of the Delphic Apollo, should have continued to 
govern, absolutely, for many ages, so intelligent a people 
as the Greeks. It is still more humiliating to assume, 
that the ministers of Apollo were sincere, and really be- 
lieved the responses to come from Apollo himself. It is 
rather to be believed, that this was one among the many- 
instances in which a few men, by assumptions and mys- 
teries, have been enabled to exercise an absolute domin- 
ion over their fellow-men. In after ages, w^hen the veil 
was rent, it proved to be only this : That while the vis- 
itor remained at Delphi, the inquisitive priests discerned 
all that was material to their purpose ; that the Pythia, 
who was an ignorant female, was so placed as to be af- 
fected by the gaseous fumes, and that when she was 
excited to the utterance of sounds, the priests, who sur- 
rounded her, wTote down what they called responses, 
and then compared and translated them, to suit the oc- 
casion ; the suffering Pythia being as ignorant of what 
she had uttered, in her ravings, as the three legged stool 
■on which she sat. There were several such oracles in 
Greece, but this was the most authoritative. One would 
suppose that the intelligent men of this nation must have 
understood the true character of this invention. Yet the 
most eminent, as well as the most insignificant, seem 
to have had the most implicit confidence in the divinity 
of oracular sayings. It was common for persons of other 
nations to come and consult Apollo at Delphi. 

§ 154. It was with the approbation of the oracle of Del- 
phi, that the Olympic games were renewed. It is said 
that Iphetus, king of Elis, was the person who consulted 
the oracle, about seven hundred and seventy-six years 
A. C* concerning the renewal of these games ; and that 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 83 

he did this by the advice of Lycurgus, of Sparta. Of this 
distinguished person (Lycurgus) it is said, that he spent 
ten years in travelling from place to place to acquire 
knowledge, which might be profitably used in healing the 
dissensions of Greece, and in uniting them for their 
common good. He is supposed to have visited Crete, 
Egypt, Phoenicia, and all Asia Minor. In the Ionian col- 
ony he found the scattered parts of Homer's poems, (long 
forgotten, in the Peloponnesus) and collected, transcri- 
bed, arranged, and carried them home to Sparta. It 
may have been this labour which suggested the utility 
of renewing the games, as similar exhibitions are referred 
to, by this poet. 

§ 155. The priests of Apollo responded that the games 
annually celebrated at Olympia, on the river Alpheus, 
in Elis, must be renewed. Olympia was on the western 
side of the Peloponnesus, a very little south of N. lat. 
38, and about five miles from the shore of the Ionian 
sea, which lies west on the same line of latitude. Here 
was a splendid temple dedicated to Jupiter Olympi/s, 
and within was a statue of that god, composed of gold 
and ivory, and of such awful magnificence, that all Gre- 
cians supposed that they would have lived in vain if they 
should die without having seen it. This was the work 
of Phidias, of Athens; an ornament added to the temple 
probably about 450 B. C. Being asked how he intend- 
ed to represent Jupiter, he is said to have answered by 
repeating some lines of Homer, which are thus translated 
by Pope : 

This said, his kingly brow the sire inclined, 
The large black curls fell awful from behind, 
Thick shadowing the stern forehead of the god ; 
Olympus trembled at the Almighty nod. 

The figure was that of a person sixty feet in height, seat- 
ed on a throne, and principally composed of ivory, di- 
versified with gold, and precious stones, and with a great 
variety of mythological sculpture. One sees in this 
specimen of art, the Egyptian origin of things in Greece; 
on part of the throne were carved sphynxes devouring 
the Theban children, an unquestionable importation from 
the Nile. 



84 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

§ 156. We have not space to describe the games, 
which consisted of well known athletic contests,* and 
of chariot races, all of which were conducted with great 
solemnity, and with religious rites and sacrifices. It is 
the effect, and not the games, which deserves considera- 
tion. All persons of Grecian descent, might be compet- 
itors for the crown of olive, if qualified by training, and 
proved to be of worthy character. Whatever wars may 
have raged in Greece, they were suspended for a term 
before, during, and after the games, which continued 
five days, in the month of July, in every fourth year. 
The place of exhibition was an oblong square, from the 
sides of which there were ascending seats, adapted to the 
accommodation of an immense multitude. This cele- 
bration caused to assemble, not only spectators from 
Greece, but from all the isles, and colonies. It was not 
only a place wherein athletic skill could be displayed, but 
hither came the excellent in history, poetry, eloquence, 
sculpture, and music. Here the illustrious deeds of Greece 
were recounted ; Herodotus read the history of his tra- 
vels ; and bards recited the verse of Homer. Here 
Pindar of Thebes sung his inspiring odes. To him the 
Greeks raised an honourable monument ; and when, two 
hundred years afterwards, Alexander the Great demol- 
ished Thebes, he spared the house in which Pindar had 
dwelt. The victors received immortal honours. Fe- 
males were not admitted to behold these games ; but at 
length their claims were regarded ; and they also had 
their contests for swiftness of foot, poetry, and music, 
and the crowned were permitted to hang their pictures in 
the temple of Jupiter. 

§ 157. To understand the eiFect of the Olympic games 
on the Greeks, it must be remembered, that the most 
exciting motives of the human mind were called into fuU 
action. The Greeks were a community of rival nations. 
The victors did not triumph over competitors of their 
own nation only, but over all these nations. The cr6wn 
of olive was awarded to the most excellent, in those pow- 
ers of body and mind which all desired, admired, and 
envied. The victory was gained in the presence of the 

* The best descriptioh of the games, of the temples, and statues, 
at Olympia, may be that contained in the xxxviiith chap, of ' Voy- 
age de Jeune Anacharsis, en Grece,' (vol. 3, p. 469.) 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 85 

most eminent men who dwelt throughout all the regions 
which bore the name of Grecian. The competition was 
among common citizens, nobles, princes, and kings, who 
were reduced to one level, and distinguished only by 
personal merit. It was at the same time a religious wor- 
ship. The prizes were contended for in the very presence 
of Jupiter ; and the crowns of conquest were awarded 
in his own temple, and almost by his own hand. The 
splendour of this temple, the majesty of this awful Jupi- 
piter, the solemn music, the vast multitude, the purpose 
of the assembly, to declare who, among all that contend- 
ed, was most excellent, and to bestow on him a fame, 
which would make his city and his country proud of him, 
and his own name immortal, are exciting causes founded 
in the very nature of man. 

§ 158. It was no uncommon thing to distinguish an 
Olympiad, by the name of the pre-eminent victor; and 
to give him a correspondent distinction wherever he ap- 
peared. It is said that the memorable Dionysius, (tyrant 
of Syracuse,) considered the rejection of his poem, at 
Olympia, the most intolerable mortification of his life. 
The haughty Philip of Macedon was a competitor in the 
chariot races ; and on the same day in which he received 
the crown of olive, he also received the news, that one 
of his generals had vanquished the Illyrians, and that his 
son Alexander was born. The olive crown was more 
welcome than either of the other events. A more touch- 
ing instance of the influence of these games, is found in 
the story of Diagoras, of the Island of Rhodes. He was 
then old. He had been formerly crowned in the temple 
of Jupiter. He came now to witness the efforts of his 
two sons. Both were victors. When they were crown- 
ed, they bore their father around the stadium on their 
shoulders, to show him to the assembled Greeks ; when 
some one cried out, ' Die, Diagoras ! for why should you 
live longer!' And such was his fate; he there died in 
the arms of his sons, bathed with their tears. 

§ 159. The influence of these games on Grecian char- 
acter, whether considered in a religious, national, intel- 
lectual, or military view, cannot be doubted. To these 
more than to all other causes combined, must be attrib- 
uted the distinction and eminence, which this people 
acquired, in comparison with all others of ancient days. 
8 



86 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

Of Sparta, (or Lacedaemon) chief City of Laconia, in the Pelopon- 
nesus. 

§ 160. The revolution which Lycurgus effected in La- 
conia, (the middle one of the principal states of the 
Peloponnesus) is an event which stands alone in the 
history of men. This event occurred about 890 years 
B. C. It had no example, and has not been imitated. 
There is no more reason for doubting the truth of his- 
torical statements, concerning Lycurgus and his achieve- 
ments, than there is for doubting the truth of any others 
of equal antiquity. Yet it is hardly credible, that any 
man should have supposed it possible to turn all tKe 
strong motives to human action, into channels never be- 
fore known ; less credible, that he should have been en- 
tirely successful in his purpose. He could not have been 
successful, if he had not received the full approbation of 
Apollo at Delphi. It is said that the female who sat on 
the tripod, and whose official name was the Pythia, 
hesitated whether to call him a god, or a man ; ad- 
dressed him with profound respect, and promised him 
all necessary aid and counsel. At this time, the king of 
Lacedaemon was despotic. Lycurgus preserved royal 
authority, but abolished despotism. He gained the no- 
bles by raising them to the dignity of counsellors, with 
the prescribed duty of considering and approbating laws; 
and he commanded the veneration of the people, by 
making them the final legislative authority, with power 
to confirm or reject, the acts of the nobles. So far, his 
measures seem practicable ; at least, there seem to be 
inducements enough for the concurrence of the interest- 
ed parties. 

§ 161. We come next to a new feature in government, 
the establishment of a council of five, annually elected, 
called the Ephori, (overseers or inspectors) whose high 
prerogative it was, to hold the king, nobles, and the peo- 
ple themselves, to the close observance of the established 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 87 

constitution. This provision can be reconciled to rea- 
sonable motives. But there is cause for admiring the 
conception and execution of a scheme, which made all 
the property of the country one common stock ; an equal 
division of all its products ; the establishment of a com- 
mon and frugal table, where all fared alike ; the total 
abolition of commerce, of gold, silver, and riches, and 
the substitution of iron money ; the banishment of all 
mechanical employments among citizens ; and the ex- 
tinction of the strongest of all feelings, those of parental 
affection, by making all the children the property of the 
republic, and by vesting in every citizen an equal au- 
thority over all of them. One would, at first, suppose 
that such an order of things would necessarily cause 
idleness, combinations, tumults, and revolution. But 
this wonderful lawgiver assigned to the slaves, who were 
common property, all the labour of providing the food, 
and supplying the simple wants of the people, while he 
kept all the subjects of the republic, of whatsoever age 
or sex, busily engaged in preparations for war, in gym- 
nastic exercises, in conversation, in debating, in religious 
ceremonies, and elevating amusements. For the first 
time, we believe, in the history of Greece, the female 
sex was ralspfl to its piopur dignity, and permitted to 
exercise its chastening authority. Mothers became the 
guardians and instructors of their own children, until 
tJiese were worthy of the honour of being adopted by 
the republic. 

§ 162. It is less difficult to suppose that such a state 
of society might continue, than that it might begin. The 
renown of Lacedsemon might soon become a common 
bond. The terror, and the admiration of surrounding 
communities, in relation to this which had assumed a 
commanding superiority, were not new causes of union 
among those who were so admired and feared. It 
is admitted, that the Lacedaemonians (more commonly 
called Spartans, from the name of their chief city) far 
excelled all other Grecians in the arts of war. Their 
movements in numerous bodies were as rapid and skilful 
as those of modern times. They had one excitement of 
which most modern soldiers are ignorant, they went into 
battle with the devotion of sincere piety. Historians re- 
late, that on the day of battle, the king rose before the 



^8 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

dawn, to propitiate the gods by prayer and sacrifice; 
that the Spartans approached the enemy with cheerful 
aspect, and manly grace, their long hair arranged with 
simple elegance ; their nodding plumes, their scarlet 
dress, and brazen armour, shedding a dazzling lustre 
around them. At the moment of conflict, the king of- 
fered his holy sacrifices again, and, under the impulse of 
exhilarating music, the steady Spartans moved to the 
highest glory which (as it seemed to them) the gods al- 
low to men, that of vaunting over a fallen foe. 

§ 163. Of the first hundred years from the ncAV order 
of Lycurgus, sixty were spent in a cruel and desolating 
warfare between the Spartans and Messenians, who 
were situated on the western side of the Peloponnesus. 
The remnant of Messenians withdrew, and settled in 
Sicily, where the name still remains. There is hardly 
a fact or person in these hundred years worth remem- 
bering, except a Messenian general named Aristomenes. 
This person appears on all occasions, in an honourable 
point of view ; and it is said that he needed only a 
Homer to give him an equality with any hero who is 
known through the verse of this illustrious bard. 

The other wars of the Spartans were carried on against 
Argolis, (which was on the eastern side of the Pelopon- 
nesus) until the general history of Greece is niingled with 
that of Athens. 

§ 164. It must be admitted, that the Spartans were 
physically, and intellectually, a noble race of men ; the 
most so that men could be in that age of the world. It 
is in their own age, and in comparison with other Greeks, 
that they are to be commended. For the present age, 
there is nothing to respect in their qualities ; nor would 
any one desire to see, in his own nation, the feelings and 
the motives which reigned in Sparta. Perhaps the whole 
theory of Lycurgus, reduced to its elements, may be this : 
that he took away all motives to action at home, which 
tended to any purpose but that of being able to serve the 
republic ; and made that service to consist in successful 
defence against all assailing enemies, and in the power 
to vanquish all whom the Spartans chose to attack. If 
this be so, this remarkable people, as examples for mod- 
ern times, have had their full share of admiration. 

§ 165. It would be an amusing speculation to imagine, 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 89 

what such a republic as that of Lacedeemon would even- 
tually prove to be. Would the king, the nobles, or the 
people, acquire disproportionate power, and destroy the 
balance 1 Or, through what avenue would debasement 
approach, and present the common catastrophe of des- 
potism arising from anarchy, or from gradual increase 
of power in legitimate rulers'? It came in neither way 
to this people. They long maintained their honourable 
superiority. Their downfall came at last from their own 
successes. They conquered, they became rich in spoils 
and slaves. Though individually they had nothing of 
their own, collectively they had enough to corrupt and 
debase. The Ephori, being the presiding officers in 
public assemblies, vested with the authority of declar- 
ing war, and of making peace, of treating with foreign 
powers, determining the number of the forces, and the 
funds from which they should be paid, of distributing 
rewards and punishments, of regulating education, and 
slavery, and of administering justice, gradually drew all 
power into their own hands. Thus the very authority 
established by annual popular election to preserve the 
balance among all authorities, absorbed the whole.* . The 
great principle which distinguishes the American repub- 
lics from all others is, — the complete separation of the 
legislative, judicial, and executive powers from each 
other. So long as this separation is preserved, our re- 
publics may continue. It is encouraging to perceive that 
all conflicts, hitherto, tend the more strongly to establish 
this principle. 

§ 166. Though the purity of Lycurgus's system was 
corrupted, the Lacedaemonians continued to preserve 
their martial character, until a very late period of their 
history. At last they sunk, in common vi'ith so many 
other nations, first under the dominion of Philip of 
Macedonia and his son Alexander, and then under the 
universal empire of Rome. We shall here leave the 
Spartans, to visit Athens. In the varieties of fortune 
which visited the Athenians, all that is worthy of further 
notice in Spartan history, will find its place. 

* The establishment of the Ephori is attributed to Lycurgus by 
Herodotus and Xenophon ; but Plutarch and Aristotle attribute it to 
Theopompus, a king of Sparta, one hundred and thirty years before 
the time of Lycurgus. 

8* 



90 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

Athens. 

§ 167. Athens is supposed to have been founded 1550 
years before the Christian era, by Cecrops, the leader of 
a colony from Egypt.* It still exists by the same name 
of Athens, with some scattered remnants of ancient mag- 
nificence. It consisted of two parts, the Acropolis, 
(meaning city on the summit) situated on a rocky eleva- 
tion, in a plain, and of the lower city on the plain. The 
Acropolis was about seven miles in circuit. The lower 
city was of diiferent extents, at different periods. Athens 
is four miles northeast from the shore of the Saronic 
gulf, which lies between Attica and the Peloponnesus, 
and near two small rivers, the Cephissus and the lUissus, 
in north latitude, a little south of 38. It is 35 miles east 
of the east end of the Corinthian gulf, 80 southeast from 
Delphi, and 35 miles northwest of the south point of 
Attica. The territory is said to be sterile naturally. 

§ 168. There were twelve cities in Attica, including 
Athens. Its government was royal in the beginning. 
Plutarch gives, under the biography of Theseus, an ac- 
count of the reformation of the government by this 
prince, probably true in part, and fabulous in part. All 
the early ages deserve little notice. There are discon- 
tents and wars, with men and beasts. The royal gov- 
ernment was succeeded by a species of republic, in 
which archons were the chiefs. To remedy a state of 
anarchy, the Athenians conferred on Draco, an absolute 
authority; by him, laws highly penal were enacted. 
Idleness was punished with death. He thought the least 
crime should be so dealt with, and that there was no 
penalty severer for the greatest. Hence we hear of al- 
lusions to laws written in blood. This event is said to 
have occurred about 620 years B. C, wherefore we are 
to look to a later period for Athenian celebrity. 

* It was first called Cecropia, and afterwards Athens, from the 
Greek name (Athene) of Minerva. 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 91 

§ 169. The laws of Draco could not be executed, and 
new dissensions arose. Solon was commissioned to es- 
tablish order, about 595 B. C He was one of the seven 
wise men of Greece, a descendant from an Athenian 
king called Codrus. His acts are related by Plutarch. 
He framed an admirable system of laws, and caused 
them to be engraved on wood. This is (we believe) the 
first instance of laws that may be called written^ among 
the Greeks. The Areopagus, a court consisting of 
many, but an unknown number of members, was revived 
by him, and long maintained its judicial celebrity. It 
had also political authority, resembling that of the 
Ephori in Sparta. He abolished the right of creditors 
to make slaves of debtors and their children ; and made 
the honour of office the sole reward foV public service. 
Having established his code, he bound his countrymen 
by oath, not to change it for ten years. He then 
withdrew and visited different countries. He returned 
at the end of that time, and finding Attica embroiled by 
internal factions, he again withdrew in disgust, and it is 
uncertain when or where he died. Some accounts say 
that he died at the Isle of Cyprus. Plutarch gives a full 
account of his public services, and renders him just 
honour. 

§ 170. About 560 B. C, Pisistratus of royal descent, 
and a relation of Solon, obtained a kind of royal domin- 
ion by various stratagems. He was expelled, but re- 
turned in a triumphal chariot, with a female representing 
Minerva; was again expelled, but returned with an 
army, and reinstated himself and governed till 527 B. C. 
He is said to have adhered to the laws of Solon, and to 
have been essentially serviceable to his countrymen. 
He left two sons, Hippias and Hipparchus. These as- 
sumed jointly a royal authority. The latter was assas- 
sinated during a religious festival, and the former reigned 
alone. 

§ 171. Here is found an event insignificant in itself, 
but which is the real foundation of the military renown 
of the Greeks, and which produced consequences in 
which all those who read Grecian history deeply sympa- 
thize. 

Hippias was an odious tyrant. Some of his country- 
men who had suffered tortures by his order, prevailed on 



92 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

the Delphic oracle to relieve the Athenians from the ty- 
ranny of Hippias. He was expelled, and went to Sar- 
dis, in Lydia, which is about 50 miles eastwardly of 
Smyrna. (This had been the capital of Croesus before- 
mentioned, so celebrated for his riches. Solon visited 
him ; there is an account of a remarkable conversation 
between these persons in Herodotus. Cyrus the Persian 
conquered Croesus.) When Hippias went to Sardis, he 
applied to the satrap of Darius, king of Persia, then 
monarch of all the known earth from the iEgean Sea to 
India. The Athenian Greeks had assisted their coun- 
trymen on the shore of Asia Minor, when the Persians 
subdued them. Darius demanded of the Athenians to 
restore Hippias. The Spartans, ever the rivals and ene- 
mies of the Athenians, having learned that the command 
of the oracle to them, to aid in expelling Hippias, had 
been obtained by fraud, joined the Persians in the de- 
mand; The Athenians refused ; and hence arose the 
memorable wars between Darius and the Greeks. 

§ 172. Then came the famous battle of Marathon, 
which deserves notice, since it shows what a few reso- 
lute men can do against great numbers, in defence of 
their homes. Darius dwelt at Susa, near the eastern 
line of the square in Asia, about 2000 miles from Athens. 

The first expedition of the Persians was confided to 
Mardonius, the son-in-law of Darius. He came with a 
fleet from the eastern shores of the Mediterranean ; and 
possessed himself ^of some of the Grecian isles, but his 
fleet was destroyed by tempests. 

§173. Datis, a Mede, and Artaphernes, son of the 
governor (of the same name) at Sardis, commanded the 
second expedition. A fleet bore 500,000 chosen men to 
the shores of Greece. A portion of these troops were 
left in the conquered isles in the Archipelago, and 
100,000 infantry and a numerous body of horse, were 
landed on the plains of Marathon, 10 miles northeast of 
Athens. 

§ 174. The inhabitants of Attica were at this time di- 
vided into ten tribes. Each tribe chose its own general, 
and the supreme command belonged to each general by 
turns. The Athenian force was 10,000 freemen, and 
perhaps an equal number of slaves. The freemen of 
Athens were accustomed to severe exercise, and they 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 95 

were well defended by armour. Among these generals 
were Miltiades, and Aristides. The former was held in 
high respect for his military talents. When the turn of 
the latter came to take the supreme command, he yield- 
ed it to Miltiades. The other generals followed this mag- 
nanimous example. The Athenians were posted on the 
right; 1000 men who had come fro.m Platsea, as auxil- 
iaries, on the left ; the slaves in the centre. These 
forces were posted on the declivity of a hill. When the 
Persians came near, so that their darts and slings could 
take effect, the Athenians rushed down upon them, and 
secured to themselves a triumphant victory. 

§ 175. On the Greek side two generals and 200 men 
fell ; on the Persian side 6000 were slain in the battle, 
and as many more in pursuit. The Persians fled, not to 
their camp, but to their ships, of which seven were add- 
ed to the spoils of the Greeks. The messenger despatch- 
ed to Athens, ran with such celerity, as to arrive there, 
covered with dust and blood, but in such exhaustion, 
that he had only time to exclaim, ' rejoice with the vic- 
tors,' then fell and expired. This battle was fought in 
the year 490 B. C. 

§ 176. Xerxes succeeded Darius. He resolved to 
punish the Greeks effectually. In the year 481 B. C. 
he prepare!.! a fleet of 1200 ships of war, and 3000 ships 
of burthen. The number of men in these vessels was 
500,000. He is said to have appeared in Greece with a 
land force of 1,700,000 infantry, and 400,000 cavalry. 
The attendants of this oriental armament, composed of 
women, priests, and followers, are said to have equalled 
the number of fighting men- This is probably the most 
numerous collection of men, in the shape of an army, that 
the earth has ever borne. The numbers are supposed by 
some writers to be grossly exaggerated. They Were 
gathered from the numerous provinces over which the 
Persian power was then extended. The details of this 
expedition fill many pages of history, which there is not 
room to notice. Many of them are doubtless fabulous, 
most of them highly coloured ; and few of them worth 
noticing. 

§ 177. Xerxes commanded in person. He crossed the 
Hellespont on a bridge made by mooring his ships. His 
first bridge was destroyed by a tempest, on which occa^ 



94 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK, 

sion he ordered the Hellespont to be beaten with 300 
stripes, and to be chained, by casting a pair of fetters in^ 
to it, in proof of his absolute dominion on the earth. 
Herodotus says that Xerxes pronounced his malediction 
in these words; ' It is thus, thou salt and bitter waters 1 
that thy master punishes thy unprovoked injury ; and he 
is determined to pass thy treacherous streams notwith- 
standing all the insolence of thy malice.' 

§ 178. Xerxes is said to have ascended an eminence, 
(probably near ancient Troy,) and seated on a throne 
there, to have surveyed his vast armament both by sea 
and land in one comprehensive view. This was a possi- 
ble thing, perhaps, whether it occurred on the European 
or the Asiatic side of the waters. It is well worthy of 
notice that about 80 years before Xerxes appeared in 
Greece, the prophet Daniel uttered these words. ' Be- 
hold there shall stand up yet, three kings in Persia ; and 
the fourth shall be far richer than they all ; and by hi& 
strength through his riches, he shall stir up all against the 
realm of Grecia.' (Dan. ch. xi, 2.) When Xerxes had 
reviewed his millions, no one of the vast number which 
he beheld, surpassed himself in strength, in stature, and 
in comeliness. Historians say, that as he sat and view- 
ad, this vast multitude he melted into tears, on reflecting 
that in a hundred years not one of all his hosts would 
be dwelling on the earth. If he could have looked but 
jB.fty years beyond his hundred, he would have seen a 
time when all his own vast empire would have been sub- 
mitted to the dominion of a Greek. 

179. Availing ourselves of the height to which Xerxes 
had ascended, let us suppose ourselves to be looking 
down upon the world, all of which (not held by barbarous 
tribes,) except Rome, Carthage, Greece, and far eastern 
Asia, was ruled in twenty distinct satrapies or kingdoms, 
by one mighty monarch. Royal magnificence, vice adorn- 
ed with attractive splendour, abject humiliation to superi- 
ors, relentless tyranny to inferiors, blind submission to 
soothsayers and astrologers, more than half the whole 
number of men on earth held as slaves; such were the 
elements of society ! Looking down on Greece, we see 
a people of the same language, of the same religion, of 
austere habits, of superior intelligence, of athletic form 
of mind and body, skilled in war and enured to hard- 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 95 

ships, broken into communities, distracted by implaca- 
ble hostility and malicious rivalry. The Amphictyonic 
council had long lost its power. In one thing and one 
only, had they a common sentiment, viz. this : The rav- 
ings of a woman seated on a sacred tripod, announced 
human destiny in mysterious phrases. What would 
have been more natural than that armed, skilful, patri- 
otic, intelligent Greece, laying aside all animosities, 
should have united its whole force, and availing itself of 
the defensible form of the country, have dissipated this 
host of Asiatics, as the sun dissipates the dews which his 
absence permits the night to gather. It was not so. 
They continued, and rather cherished their antipathies. 
A portion of them even joined the common foe, to sa- 
tiate their vengeance on their own countrymen. This 
was the more reproachful, because this was not a 
war in which there could be difference of opinion as to 
the motive. All Greece knew, that its sole purpose was 
conquest, and that there might not be one people left on 
the earth, who had not submitted to the Persian yoke. 
The Greeks, by neglect of their own means, and by 
their own follies, were doomed to see their cities, their 
temples, and their sacred oracles, pillaged, and de- 
stroyed. 

§ 180. Xerxes proceeded in his career as though he 
were making an excursion of pleasure in his own do- 
minions. His path was along the western side of the 
waters which separate Europe from Asia. He every- 
where received the usual tokens of submission, viz. ; 
presents of earth and water, until he came to the lofty 
range of mountains which bound Thessaly on the south- 
west, and which run south-eastwardly to the shores on 
the north-eastern side of Greece. At the end of this 
range, next the sea, is a narrow passage, not wide 
enough for two chariots to pass, called the straits of 
Thermopylse, from the warm springs in that vicinity. 
Such of the Greeks in Peloponnesus, and in Attica, as 
still retained the proper sentiments which the occasion 
called for, united, and prepared themselves for a manly 
defence. The Athenians fitted out their ships of war. 
About sixty thousand freemen, and a greater number of 
armed slaves, went forth to meet the vast army which 
had entered Greece. The fleet had gone to Artemisium, 



•96 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

which is at the northwest end of the island of Euboea, 
and fifteen miles southeast of Thermopylae. Eight 
thousand pikemen were considered sufficient to defend 
these straits, among whom was Leonidas, king of Sparta, 
with the strength of Spartan heroism. Xerxes, hearing 
th^-t the Spartans were posted at Thermopylae, sent a 
hel^ald to say, that his object was to punish the Atheni- 
ans, that he had no particular cause of quarrel with 
the Spartans, and that they must lay down their arms. 
The Spartans replied, ' Let Mm come and take them.'' 
They took no other notice of the Persians, but contin- 
ued to amuse themselves with gymnastic exercises, mu- 
sic, conversation, and in adjusting their long hair, to 
adorn their military costume. 

§ 181. The Persians approached, but fell by thousands 
in attempting to dislodge the Spartans, who, defended 
hy their shields and spears, remained unhurt. Long 
might this band of 8000 have sustained themselves 
against hundreds of thousands, if a traitor Greek, for- 
ever infamous, by the name of Ephialtes, had not con- 
ducted a part of the Persians through a pass in the 
mountains, unknown before to them. They succeeded 
in gaining the fear of the Greeks. The approach of the 
Persians from this quarter being known, Leonidas de- 
tached all but three hundred chosen Spartans to meet 
the enemy, remaining himself with this little band, at the 
straits. The following night, while the Persians were 
wrapt in sleep, and so secure in their camp on the plains 
of Thessaly, that they had not even a guard on duty, 
Leonidas, with his 300 Spartans, broke into their camp, 
and effected an immense slaughter. At the dawn, they 
retired, leaving the whole Persian camp in consterna- 
tion. 

§ 182. Xerxes, enraged at this audacity, forced on his 
reluctant troops to the narrow pass. One alone of all 
the Spartans, survived that tremendous conflict. The 
rest were buried beneath a mound of Persian darts and 
arrows. A Thracian Greek had advised them to yield, 
for said he, these barbarians will send forth such a 
shower of arrows as will obscure the sun. The Spartan 
Dieneces replied, ' If the Medes obscure the sun's light, 
we shall fight them in the shade, and be protected from 
the heat.' The Spartan band was buried where it fell. 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 97 

Thither were broucrht the slain of the detachment who 
went to meet the Persians coming over the mountains. 
The Amphictyons raised a monument to Leonidas, in the 
form of a lion of stone. Another monument was also 
raised by them in honour of the slain, bearing an inscrip- 
tion to this effect, 

* Go, stranger, and to list'ning Spartans tell, 
That here, obedient to their laws, we fell.' 

Herodotus says^ (Polymnia, ccxxiv, 4. Beloe. 150) * I 
am acquainted with the names of all the three hundred.' 
Further on, he says, 'Aristodemus was the only survivor. 
He was absent when the battle occurred, and was con- 
sidered to be so much disgraced by this accident, that 
when afterwards, at the battle of Platsea, he conducted 
himself bravely, he was nevertheless unworthy any share 
in the spoils. One other is said to have survived ; but 
on his return to Sparta, he felt himself so disgraced by 
being alive, that he destroyed himself 

§ 183. Xerxes pursued his way to Athens through 
Phocis and Bceotia, ravaging, destroying, and commit- 
ting the most barbarous excesses. The ctstance from 
Thermopylae to Athens, is about eighty miles. One 
division went westwardly by the foot of Parnassus, to 
Delphi. The priests being informed of their approach, 
consulted the Pythia, who replied, 'The arras of Apollo 
are sufficient for the defence of his shrine.' The wom- 
en and children were sent across the gulf of Corinth 
to Achaia, the men climbed the steeps of Parnassus, 
and concealed themselves in the mountains. The vron- 
derful account of the ancient historians is, that Apollo 
did take care of his own ; for when the Persians ap- 
proached Delphi, and were passing beneath the frown- 
ing heights of Parnassus, an awful storm rent its summit 
rocks, and rolled its fragments on the assailants, who, 
panic struck at their own impiety, fled in despair. The 
Delphians pursued and destroyed great numbers of tnc 
unresisting enemy. Those who escaped, joined the main 
army on its way to Attica. The Athenians abandoned 
their city, and fled across the Saronic gulf to Argolis, 
in the Peloponnesus. Leaving Xerxes in possession of 
9 



98 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

Athens, we will glance at the transactions of the naval 
war. 

§ 184. When the Delphic oracle was consulted on the 
subject of the Persian invasion, we have a fair sample of 
the oracular responses, which were adapted to suit the 
event, whatever that might prove to be. On this occa- 
sion the Pythia replied, 

' Thou slialt, immortal Salamis, destroy 
The rising source of many a mother's joy.' 

The interpreters insisted that a defeat would be the con- 
sequence of a sea engagement near Salamis. But The- 
mistocles, who had risen to some distinction at Athens, 
contended that if the oracle had meant destruction to the 
Athenians, it would not have said immortal Salamis; but 
wretched Salamis ; and that the denunciation was against 
the Persians. A fleet of three hundred and eighty vessels 
had been prepared, and had sailed under the command 
of Themistocles to Artemisium, in Euboea. The Per- 
sian fleet was northwardly of this place, along the coast 
of Thessaly. They suffered great loss by a tempest. 
On the day,«pf the battle at Thermopylae, the fleets en- 
gaged, in what is called the battle of Artemisium, in 
which neither side were victorious, though there was 
much loss on both sides. The Athenian fleet then re- 
turned to Salamis, an island five or six miles from the 
shore of Attica, south-west from Athens. Thither came 
the Persian fleet, consisting of twelve hundred vessels, 
against three hundred and eighty of the Greeks. The 
details of this battle are very interesting, but there is 
space only to notice, that Xerxes had seated himself on a 
lofty throne on the top of Mount iEgaleos, (at the north- 
ern end of the gulf) whence he could behold the combat. 
The Persians were informed that they were to fight un- 
der the eye of their king. On the other hand, the Greeks 
were made desperate by the hymn composed for the oc- 
casion : ' Advance ! ye sons of Athens ! save your coun- 
try, defend your wives and children ! deliver the temples 
of your gods ! regain the sacred tombs of your renowned 
forefathers ! this day the common cause of Greece de- 
mands your valour !' 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 99 

§ 185. Various fortunate circumstances gave a com- 
plete victory to the Greeks, with comparatively insig- 
nificant loss on their part. The flower of the Persian 
infantry had been landed on a rocky isle near the shore 
of Attica, to be ready there, to intercept the remnant of 
the Greeks, when the battle had been fought. The bat- 
tle over, the Greeks hastened to this isle, and almost in 
the presence of Xerxes, and actually in his view, put 
them all to death. Thus the proud monarch of the east, 
saw his fleet disgraced, and the most precious part of 
his army, destroyed almost in one and the same moment. 
He rose from his silver throne, and rent his royal robes, 
and like Napoleon at Moscow, resolved to find his way 
.home. 

§ 186. Xerxes reached the Hellespont with all his 
troops, after severe and complicated sufterings, in about 
forty-five days. He gladly accepted the ofter of Mardo- 
nius, his chief general, to remain with 300,000 men to 
complete his conquests, and escaped himself, it is said, 
to Asia in a fishing boat, his second bridge having been 
destroyed by another tempest of the Hellespont, notwith- 
standing the castigation and the fetters, which the mas- 
ter of the earth had ordered. 

The battle of Platsea finished the Persian invasion. 
On the retreat of Xerxes the Greeks re-assembled 
their forces, which are said, on the authority of three 
Grecian historians, to have amounted to 40,000 heavy 
armed troops, 85,000 light armed Helots (slaves) from 
Sparta, and about as many more of the same de- 
scription of troops, from other states. This Grecian 
force were hardly less at peace among themselves, than 
they were collectively, as to the Persians. There are 
many details of their feuds and contentions almost in 
the presence of their enemy. 

§ 187. Mardonius returned with his army to Platsea, 
in Boeotia, about forty-five miles northwest from Attica. 
The dissensions of the Greeks, and the events preceding 
the battle, occupy many pages in history. These only 
show how little the Greeks valued their own safety, in 
comparison with the indulgence of their acrimonious 
feelings, even at the moment when every thing that re- 
mained to them, depended on harmony and joint efforts. 
The battle came. Mardonius fell. The superior skill 



100 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

and undaunted courage of the Greeks gained a glorious 
victory. 

§ 188. The spoils of this victory give the best informa- 
tion to be had, of the means taken by the Persians to 
make their expedition to conquer Greece pleasant to 
themselves ; while they disclose interesting facts con- 
cerning oriental riches and luxury. Xerxes fled too 
hastily to take his treasures with him ; and there are 
said to have been found in the captured camp couches 
magnificently embroidered; tables of gold and silver; 
bowls and goblets of gold ; stalls and mangers of brass, 
curiously wrought and ornamented ; chains, bracelets, 
scimitars, some of solid gold, others adorned with pre- 
cious stones ; chests of Persian money, which began at 
that time to be current in Greece, and continued to be 
so a long time afterwards. Besides this booty, there 
were many Persian women, and innumerable horses and 
camels.* 

The first duty of the pious Greeks was to satisfy 
the gods with a tenth ; another tenth was given to the 
general, Pausanias of Sparta ; other particular reserva- 
tions were made to favoured deities and temples. Prizes 
were distributed among the victors. No one behaved 
more bravely than the surviving Spartan of Leonidas' 
band, Aristodemus, who seemed to seek death. But he 
could not efface his former reproach, nor be deemed 
worthy of any prize. This battle was fought on the 22d 
of September, 479 B. C. 

§ 189. The last blow given to prostrate the power of 
Persia over the Greeks, was at Mycale on the western 
shore of Asia Minor, near the isle of Samos. There, on 
the same day on which the battle of Platsea was fought, 
the united Athenian and Spartan fleets attacked the 
remnant of the Persian fleet, and accomplished a victory 
which freed the Ionian colonies forever from the king of 
Persia. This is said to have been the bloodiest battle of 
the war. The number of Persians slain was said to ex- 
ceed 40,000. The Persians had drawn their ships on 
shore, and had surrounded them with means of defence. 
The Greeks left their ships, and the battle was on the 

* Gillies' History of Greece, 1 vol. 450. 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 101 

land.* We shall close all remarks on Xerxes, by adding 
that he retired to Sardis, and consoled himself with 
profligate pleasures there ; then found his way back to 
Susa, where, in the year B. C. 465, and twenty-first of 
his reign, he was murdered by Artabanus, the captain of 
his guards. 

* The vessels of our days, which bear the name of ships, are very 
different from the war vessels of the ancients. The latter should 
rather be called galleys. They were propelled by oars, and the con- 
test in them resembled the battle on land. One mode of fighting 
was to row one vessel aganst another, with such force, as to break 
in the side, and cause her to sink. The beaks, or prows, were cov- 
ered with brass, and made with a projecting edge. Level with the 
water were instruments resembling the points of spears, adapted to 
penetrate the bottom of the adversary vessel. The banks (or seats) of 
the rowers, one over the other, were commonly three ; but in some 
instances six, eight, and even ten. The upper oars must have been 
long enough to reach over all inferior ones. It is supposed that the 
long oars were balanced by placing lead on the haudleg. Sails were 
used. 



9* 



103 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 



CHAPTER XV. 

Athens from the expulsion of the Persians, to the death of Pericles^ 
429 B. C, comprising fifty years. 

§ 190. Grecian events, so far, are of little importance 
to the present age. We come now to an era, in which 
persons, and events, are highly interesting; the day of 
true Grecian renown. It begins with the fifth century 
B. C, and continues about one hundred and fifty years ; 
or, from the expulsion of the Persians, down to the uni- 
versal empire of Alexander. There was a dawning of 
glory before the fifth century, and there were departing,^ 
lingering lights, after the sun had gone down. But all 
that should be respected, admired, and lamented, is 
found in these one hundred and fifty years. 

§ 191. No time will be devoted to the many vindictive 
and ferocious wars, which occurred among the tribes of 
Greeks. They take up many pages, but teach only how 
miserable men can make each other, by submitting them- 
selves to the worst perversions of human motives. In 
this time occurred the wars distinguished as the Pelo- 
ponnesian, of which Thucydides was the historian. He 
is said to have taken notes of the events as they occur- 
red. His work is believed to be among the most respec- 
table of historical productions. There were wars with 
many of the surrounding islands ; with the barbarous 
nations which dwelt along the shores which divide Asia 
and Europe. Northeast of Greece, and up to the mouths 
of the Danube, the European side was called Thrace. 
In all these, Athens having the superior naval power, 
makes a conspicuous figure, until Sparta became supe- 
rior. It is to the efforts of the human mind to improve 
and adorn society, and not to butcher and destroy, that 
it will be profitable to devote attention. 

§ 192. The political and social system under which 
any people live, is an important element in the estimate 
of national character. In the various systems of Greece, 
there is very little which resembles the popular govern- 
ments of the United States. Motives, among mere poli- 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 103 

ticians are the same everywhere. Whether they can be 
carried into effect or not, must depend on the political 
and social condition of a people. There are, and have 
always been, men in the United States, who crave power 
as much as any Grecian ever did. But, happily, there 
are checks, and restraints in America, of which Grecians 
were is^norant. 

<5» 193. The Athenian form of government may be 
called republican, during these one hundred and fifty 
years. But it had qualifications of turbulent democracy, 
and of princely authority. Artful and ambitious men 
could make the Athenians do any thing, even against 
their own best interests, by merely assuming, that all 
that was effected or intended, was in right of their own 
sovereignty. The same sort of power was effectively 
used in France, at the close of the last century. The 
people there, could endure any thing from their own 
Napoleon. And in America we have seen a striking 
instance in the beginning of this century, of what a free 
people can be made to do and suffer, when charmed 
with the assurance that it was themselves, and not their 
rulers, who governed. It is an old remark, that the most 
odious tyranny which society has ever exhibited, is that 
which has been exercised in the name of liberty and the 
people. 

§ 194. The Athenians were divided into ten tribes. 
They are supposed to have been composed not of those 
only who dwelt within the walls of Athens, but of those 
also who dwelt in other cities, and villages of Attica. 
The population was made up of free citizens, and of an 
immense number of slaves, who were captives in war, 
and mostly of Grecian origin. Thus, Athens is said to 
have had about 84,000 free citizens, and 400,000 slaves. 
Under some circumstances, free citizens were reduced 
to slavery. The first political assembly, was that of the 
free citizens, who had the right of voting, and who were 
in number about 8000 ; the second, was the senate of 
500, chosen from among the tribes ; the highest was 
that of nine Archons, who were the executive power. 
There were many judicial tribunals, which it would be 
useless to enumerate.* The most distinguished was the 

* We acknowledge here the pleasure and instruction derived 
from a small volume entitled, A Compendium of Grecian Antiqui- 



104 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK 

Areopagus, so called from its place of meeting (north- 
westwardly of the Acropolis within the city,) the hill of 
Mars. It was of high antiquity ; of uncertain number, 
composed of those only who had been archons. It sus- 
tained a high reputation at all times. Its meetings were 
held in the open air, that its members might not be con- 
taminated by breathing the same atmosphere with the 
infamous, whose fate they were to determine ; and in the 
dark, that their ears might be open to the truth, and their 
eyes closed to the delusions of eloquence. Their judg- 
ments were known by counting the number of black 
flints, and white ones, deposited by the members, in 
urns ; the black being distinguished from the white, by 
having a hole through them. As the Athenians were 
served by slaves, and hacl leisure to devote themselves to 
the consideration of public affairs, they were excellent 
materials for the ingenuity of those who are industrious 
to promote the good of the people. 

§ 195. The popular assemblies of the Athenians were 
like a wheat field, which bends always as the wind blows, 
and the more humbly in proportion to the strength of the 
blast. It may be inferred, that a society so governed, 
would disclose the effects which powerful minds can ex- 
ercise over large numbers ; and that the delusions to 
which such numbers are liable, would often take the 
place of rational judgment. 

§196. The Athenians commenced a new existence 
after the Persians had been expelled. Their first care 
was to bring home their wives, and children, and place 
them in temporary abodes amidst the ruins of their city ; 
and next to guard their place of abode, by the erection 
of walls from the shore of the Saronic gulf to and around 
the site of Athens, comprising in length, about eighteen 
miles. On the gulf, these walls included the Piraeus, 
which was the harbour of their navy. In the following 
sketches of Athens, it will be convenient to mingle such 
historical events as may be thought worth noticing, with 

ties, by Charles Dexter Cleveland, A, M., Professor of Languages 
in Dickinson College. Second edition. Published by Hilliard, Gray, 
Little, & Wilkins, Boston, 1831. This is the work of an accom- 
plished scholar, and contains a rich collection of facts, ili better 
forni; than in any other work known to us, 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 105 

the names and characters, which are associated with 
these events. 

§ 197. Miltiades, Themistocles, and Aristides have al- 
ready been mentioned, as distinguished men, in connec- 
tion with the first Persian invasion, which closed with 
the battle of Marathon. Miltiades may be justly consid- 
ered as the individual who settled the fate of that battle. 
Public men in Greece, as elsewhere in the world, found 
their worst enemies among; their own countrymen. Mil- 
tiades proposed a naval expedition, which being unsuc- 
cessful, his countrymen exacted from him the cost of it. 
He was wounded in this warfare, committed to prison 
after his return, and there died of his wounds. Themis- 
tocles, and Aristides, were competitors for public fa- 
vour. The former appears to have been the most dar- 
ing and adroit. He is supposed to have put the latter 
aside by resorting to ostracism. This process was con- 
ducted by the assembly of the people, each one of whom 
wrote on a shell, called ostrakon, the name of any citi- 
zen whose presence was deemed dangerous to the pub- 
lic safety. If 6000 shells were found to bear the name 
of the same person, he was ostracised, or banisJied for 
ten years. At the end of that time, he might return, 
and resume all the relations of citizenship. It does not 
appear that Aristides ever used his power for any pur- 
pose inconsistent with the common good ; and his fickle 
countrymen gave him the sirname of ' the Just.' He 
died at an advanced age, deservedly honoured and be- 
loved. 

§ 198. Themistocles appears to have exerted himself 
to the utmost to improve and secure Athens against its 
enemies, and especially the Spartans. But in 471 B. C. 
he also, had to submit to ostracism- He retired to Ar- 
gos, where he met Pausanias, who commanded the Greek 
forces at Plataea, and who had been expelled from Spar- 
ta. Pausanias had sold himself to the king of Persia, 
and persuaded Themistocles to do the same. There are 
different accounts of the termination of his life. He is 
supposed in despair and disgust, to have taken poison at 
Magnesia, (Asia Minor,) in 449 B. C. 

^ 199. Cimon, the son of Miltiades, was the next pub- 
lic man in Athens, who attained to great distinction. He 
was patronized by Aristides, and distinguished himself 



106 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

at the battle of Salamis, being then a young man. He 
afterwards commanded the Athenian navy, and conquer- 
ed the whole of the southern coast of Asia Minor, to the 
northeast corner of the Mediterranean. Being entitled 
to the tenth of the spoils, he became exceedingly rich. 
He applied his wealth in adorning Athens, and in feed- 
ing and providing for the poor. He prostrated the walls 
of his gardens and fields, that all persons might take 
what they pleased. Elegant walks, ornaments of the 
market-place, the establishment of the academy in beau- 
tiful gardens, without the walls of the city, were im- 
provements made at his expense. He never assumed any 
superiority over the citizens, but his virtues and munifi- 
cence were intolerable, and the consequence was, ban- 
ishment. He was recalled, and reinstated in power; 
and while besieging the city of Citium, in the isle of Cy- 
prus, died about 449 B. C. 

§ 200. His successor in public favour, Pericles, was 
the most distinguished man of his age, and perhaps of 
any age, who was not associated with distmguished mil- 
itary fame. The age of Pericles, is the age of Athenian 
glory. It is the most conclusive proof of his ability and 
tact, that he was able to govern the inconstant Athenians 
during forty successive years. The secret of his domin- 
ion appears to have been, that he understood their true 
character, and knew how to make them believe, that 
every thing which he saw fit to do, was done by them- 
selves. He was the rival of Cimon, and was adroit 
enough to send Cimon out of his way. 

§ 201. Pericles' was the son of Xanthippus, who con- 
quered at Mycale. His person was remarkable for the 
length of the head. He received a superior education 
under Anaxagoras, Damon, and Zeno of Elia. The 
former, like Pythagoras (who preceded him by about 100 
years, and who may be considered the founder of Gre- 
cian philosophy,) had visited Egypt, and returned to 
teach in Athens. In the theories of this powerful mind 
are discerned the elements of the philosophy which is re- 
ceived at the present day. He conceived of a supreme 
intelligence, and hence was charged with impiety and 
banished. He had many pupils, who were afterwards 
among the most distinguished men of Greece. Pericles 
had thus the benefit of able teachers, and was not only 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 107 

master of the learning and philosophy of his age, but 
was instructed also, in all the elegant accompUshments, 
and attained to the distinction of- Olympian, for his ex- 
cellence in oratory. 

§ 202. It is said that he was the first Grecian who 
studied and reduced his speeches to writing ; and that 
before he addressed the Athenians, he made his sacrifi- 
ces to the gods, and prayed of them, that nothing might 
escape him, which would be offensive to his audience. 
As he had not riches to make himself acceptable, like 
Cimon, he concluded to make his fellow citizens spend 
their own treasures. When he had exhausted these, he 
took the treasures which had been gathered by the con- 
tributions of all the Greeks, at Delos, to be used in the 
common defence ao-ainst the northern barbarians, and 
brought these to Athens. When the allies complained 
of this robbery, .he answered, that Athens had made 
Greece safe from all foreign enemies, and that it did not 
become those who had been made safe by Athenian 
valour, to inquire into the appropriation of the public 
money. Without assuming any princely authority, or 
claiming more than to be the obedient servant of the 
people, he sent away, on schemes of conquest, all who 
might be troublesome at home. Those who remained in 
Athens, he kept busy in public works, in the theatres, 
and in amusements. Being at length charged with pro- 
digality in expenditure, he answered, that he would re- 
pay all he had expended, in raising the magnificent 
structures of Athens, if they would allow him to inscribe 
his own name on them. The Athenians replied that he 
might spend as much as he pteased. 

203. The schemes of Pericles called for the utmost of 
Athenian ingenuity, and genius. Body and mind, and 
every material that art coidd put to use, were in demand. 
Poetry, eloquence, music, sculpture, architecture, all ef- 
forts in the common, or fine arts, were paid for, or hon- 
oured with prizes. When labour closed for the day, 
theatrical, and other exhibitions, were ready to continue 
the excitement. 

§ 204. About the year 450 B. C, Athens had attained 
to such eminence over all other parts of Greece, as to 
attract genius and talents, from all the Grecian cities, 
and from the isles, and shores of Asia Minor ; and espe- 
cially from that part of the latter, distinguished as the 



108 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

lonmn colony. For some time before the age of Peri- 
'cles, the best artists, musicians, historians, and philoso- 
phers, were born and educated among the Ionian s ; but 
now, all came to Athens, who pretended to arty distinc- 
tion. Hence it is, that so many illustrious names are 
found in this city. Among those who flourished there^ 
(rather in the age than in the time of Pericles,) may be 
enumerated, Polygnotus of Thasos ; ApolJodorus, Zeux- 
is, Parrhasius of Ephesus, and many others, as painters. 
It was Zeuxis who painted a curtain so naturally, that 
Parrhasius, his rival, asked to have it drawn aside ; and 
the same who said of his own painted boy holding grapes^ 
that if the boy had been as well painted as the grapes, 
the birds would not have pecked at them. 

§ 205. In sculpture, Phidias had the most liberal pat- 
ronage of Pericles. He has always been regarded as 
the great master of statuary. Among his works were 
three statues of Pallas in the Acropolis ; one was cast in 
bronze, and paid for out of the tenth of the spoils of Ma- 
rathon, devoted to the gods. The second was in the 
Parthenon, so called from Parthenos (the virgin). It was 
forty-five feet in height, formed of wood, overlaid witli 
ivory. He threw over it a garment of gold either beat- 
en, or cast, with such exquisite skill, that it could be put 
on or off at pleasure ; the weight was of a value exceed- 
ing half a million of dollars. Among the figures which 
adorned the shield, Phidias introduced Pericles and him- 
self. The same artist fashioned the Olympian Jupiter, 
in the temple near Elis ; represented as presiding over 
the Olympic games. This work was regarded as among 
the wonders of the world. These are but ^qw of the 
works of Phidias ; and he was only first among the em- 
inent. 

§ 206. In music, the Greeks were distinguished at an 
early time. The celebrated Pythagoras (one hundred 
and fifty years before Pericles,) made music a part of his 
philosophy. Pericles instituted prizes for excellence in 
this art, and was himself the judge, and distributor of pri- 
zes. In the drama, Aristophanes amused the Athenians 
with his comedy and satire. Euripides, called as well 
the philosophical as the rhetorical tragedian, bound them 
in tearful sympathy. This poet was born at Salamis, 
on the very day of the battle there. Sophocles, the tra- 
gedian, was the competitor of Euripides ; and often bore 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 109 

the prize away from him. iEschylus was cotemporary 
with these two ; and the three are called the most emi- 
nent among the dramatic writers of Greece. The most 
celebrated poet of this time was Pindar, the Tlieban, 
whose style of poetry has given a name to a sort of verses 
familiarly known at the present day. 

^ 207. Among historians, Herodotus is the distinguish- 
ed one of this age. He was of Halicarnassus, (Caria, 
Asia Minor,) one of the lonians. There might be added 
a long list of mathematicians, orators, astronomers, soph- 
ists, grammarians, poets, philosophers, and artists, all 
of whom flourished at the same time in Athens. One 
among them should be selected, as a person Avho had a 
powerful influence over Pericles. This was the celebrat- 
ed Aspasia, born at Miletus, in Caria, a poetess and 
sophist ; eloquent, and of great personal attraction. The 
fame of Athens drew her thither. Pericles is supposed 
to have submitted himself to her dominion ; and she is 
said to have given the finishing polish to his eloquence. 
The people called Pericles ' Olympian Jupiter,' and As- 
pasia, ' Olympian Juno.' She had occasion to avail her- 
self of his accomplishments; for some persons, who 
desired to overthrow Pericles, but feared to assail him, 
had recourse to an accusation of Aspasia, for contempt 
of the gods. He defended her in the Areopagus, and is 
supposed to have saved her by the eloquence of his own 
tears, and grief. She became his wife. Whatever may 
have been her real character, her house, called 'the court 
of Aspasia,' was frequented by the most eminent men 
of Athens. Similar cases are not unknown, at this day, 
on the continent of Europe. The eloquence of Pericles 
is mentioned with great applause, at the close of a war 
which Aspasia is supposed to have promoted. The peo- 
ple of Miletus, (Aspasia's native city) and those of the 
Isle of Samos were at war. The Athenians took part in 
the hostility against the Samians, and soon became prin- 
cipal in this affair. After a siege of nine months, in 
which much money was spent by Pericles, and many 
Athenians fell, the chief city of the Samians was demol- 
ished, some of their principal men put to death, their 
whole fleet destroyed, and many young persons carried 
off as captives. These events furnished fine materials 
for eloquence, of which Pericles availed himself on his 
10 



110 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

return. He celebrated the glory of Athens, as the victor 
of Samos ; and concluded his proud display with an ora- 
tion in honour of the fallen heroes of the war. When 
he came down from the rostrum, the women who had 
lost husbands, brothers, sons, and friends still dearer, 
crowded around him, and adorned him with crowns and 
chaplets of flowers, as though he had won the prize at 
Olympia. Such is the power of eloquence. 

^ 208. From such circumstances as have been sketch- 
ed, one is prepared for the still more splendid achieve- 
ments of Pericles, in the unrivalled edifices which rose 
by his order. The temple of Minerva, (who was called 
also Pallas, and Parthenos, (the virgin) whence her tem- 
ple is called Parthenon,) was placed on the summit 
of the Acropolis,* and within it was the statue of Pallas, 
by Phidias. The temple was two hundred and twenty- 
eight feet in length, one hundred and two feet in breadth, 
sixty-five feet in height. It was constructed entirely 
of Pentelic marble, wrought within and without in the 
finest specimens of sculpture, selected to flatter the pride 
of Athens. The entrance to the Parthenon, situated on 
the only accessible side of the Acropolis, (western) was 
a structure hardly less admired than the Parthenon it- 
self, called the propilsea, or portico. It was of white 
marble, exceedingly massive, but tastefully constructed; 
and, at the same time, an elegant ornament and impreg- 
nable defence. There were many other edifices, which 
can only be mentioned by name ; some of which were 
before the time of Pericles, and some of which he adorn- 
ed. 1. The theatre of Bacchus. 2. Odeum, or theatre 
for music. 3. The Prytaneum, or temple where the laws 
of Solon were deposited. 4. The Museum, from the 
name of a poet supposed to have been buried there. 5. 
The Forum, or place of popular assembly, comprising 
markets; but including also temples dedicated to various 
deities. 6. The temple or hall of Paintings, called the 
Stoa (Psecile). 7. The magnificent temple of Theseus, 
erected soon after the battle of Marathon, on the plain. 
8. Olympeum, rebuilt by Pisistratus. 9. The Stadjum, 
an immense amphitheatre, on the banks of the Illissus. 
10. The Pantheon, or temple of all the gods, of great 

* Acro-polis means the summit, or high part of the city. 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. HI 

extent and magnificence, with sculptured ornaments in 
honour of these deities. 11. Academy. 12. Lyceum. 13. 
Gymnasia, comprising many buildings for all descriptions 
of athletic exercise. 

§ 209. Such was Athens in the days of the celebrated 
Pericles. It was his remarkable fortune not to have 
died in prison, in battle, nor in banishment ; nor to have 
lost the favour of the people but once, and then for a 
short time, when he was compelled to resign the com- 
mand of the fleet, and to pay a fine, in consequence of an 
unsuccessful expedition. His close of life was a sorrow- 
ful one, having survived most of his own family. To- 
wards the end of Pericles' administration, Athens was 
visited by a most distressing pestilence, in which great 
numbers perished, and among others, all that were then 
alive of his family, except a son by Aspasia, who could 
not claim to be an Athenian citizen. The firmness and 
calmness with which Pericles conducted himself during 
this general calamity, and his own griefs, are mentioned 
as high traits of character. To console him, the Athe- 
nians repealed a law which he had caused to be enacted, 
that no one should be deemed a citizen, whose parents 
were not such. This repeal admitted his only surviving 
offspring by Aspasia to citizenship. He died of a linger- 
ing sickness, at an advanced age, in the year 429 B. C, 
surrounded by sincere and respectful friends. While 
these friends were conversing in his presence on his pub- 
lic life, and honourable devotion to the interests of his 
country, he interrupted them by saying, ' You forget that 
which is most to be praised, that I have never caused an 
Athenian citizen to put on mourning.' 



112 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

From the death of Pericks, in 429 B. C. to the commencement of the 
reign of Alexander, 336 B. C. 

§ 210. In losing Pericles, Athens lost, not only its most 
eminent citizen, but the only person who had capacity to 
govern its singular population. Wars, pestilence, and 
calamities mark the next ten years, and no one worth 
naming appeared, till Socrates and Alcibiades ar^se. 
The latter was the grandson of Pericles, and brought up 
in his family. He was a person of singular beauty, great 
abilities, excessively profligate, and utterly destitute of all 
moral principle. He rose to public trust, but was faith- 
less to his own country, and condemned to death, while 
absent. After a variety of adventure, in the turbulent 
state of Greece, he died by violence in Phrygia, (Asia 
Minor.) It is remarkable that Socrates entertained a 
most affectionate friendship for him; that they were some- 
times in battle together, and each saved the life of the 
other. What of good there was in Alcibiades, he proba- 
bly learned from this friend. He had eminent qualities 
to be useful, if these had been accompanied by good 
motives. He was several times victor at the Olympic 
games. 

§211. The Athenians undertook to conquer Sicily, 
about the year 418 B. C. In this effort, Nicias and De- 
mosthenes (not the orator) were the leaders. The Spar- 
tans, ever hostile to Athens, joined the Sicilians. A most 
disastrous and mournful fate, awaited the Athenians in 
this warfare^ It differed from no similar occurrence, 
except in its distresses and miseries. The Sicilians, 
Spartans, and nearly all the states in Greece, were com- 
bined against Athens, before the end of the fifth century 
B. C; and even Persia, at least abetted the combination. 

§ 212, In the distress to which Athens was reduced, 
its citizens took the remarkable measure of abolishing 
all its ancient powers of government. They selected ten 
citizens, and gave them authority to choose one hundredj 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 113 

and to these, to choose three hundred, and thus was 
constituted a power vested in a body who soon acquired 
the name of the four hundred tyrants. This tyranny 
lasted but four months. Alcibiades returned to Athens, 
restored the democracy, and was hailed as deliverer, and 
might easily have assumed a crown. But such was the 
enfeebled, factious, and miserable state of Athens, that 
before the end of this century, (in 404 B. C.) the Spar- 
tans effected the object for which they had been strug- 
gling during many centuries. They entered the sacred 
city of Minerva, as victors, and demolished, as far as 
they could do it, the proud monuments of Athenian glo- 
ry, which the age of Pericles had established. This 
event happened on the anniversary of the battle of Sala- 
mis. The day was concluded with a magnificent festival, 
in which the poets were called into service. They chose 
the touching pieces which applied to the fallen state 
of Athens, so late the sovereign of Greece, and the mis- 
tress of the seas; but now bereft of all, and reduced to 
misery, so that even the iron-hearted Spartans melted 
into tears. Thus ended a desolating war of twenty-seven 
years, between neighbours, who spoke the same language, 
who worshiped the same gods, and whose union would 
have enabled them to defy the world in arms. Before 
the end of this century, vvliile a Spartan force still occu- 
pied Athens, its citizens were harassed by new and cruel 
factions, first by the thirty tyrants, and then by their 
successors, the Decemvirs. 

§ 213. One of the mournful and disgraceful events 
of these times, (400 B. C.) was the accusation and death 
of Socrates. In one of the plays of Aristophanes, this 
eminent man was introduced, as denying the religion 
of his country, as corrupting the morals of his disciples, 
and as professing the arts of sophistry. During all the 
calamities and miseries of Athens he had lived in retire- 
ment, cultivating philosophy. One of his friends, Cher- 
ophon, in the hope of saving him, had consulted the 
Delphic oracle on the question, whether any man was 
wiser than Socrates ? and was answered, that Socrates 
was the wisest of men. In allusion to this answer of the 
oracle, Socrates said, in his defence of himself, that he 
pretended to no superior wisdom ; — what he did possess, 
he freely communicated, striving to the utmost to render 
10* 



114 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

his fellow-citizens more virtuous, and more happy; *an 
employment,' said he, ' which I believe myself called to by 
the god, whose authority I respect, Athenians ! still more 
than yours.' His judges (not the Areopagus, as some 
histories say, but a mob of five hundred called the court 
of Helioea,) condemned him to drink hemlock in prison, 
at the age of seventy. Many friends attended him in his 
last hours, and among them Xenophon, celebrated as a 
general and a scholar, who said, when the mournful 
scene had closed: '^If any man, a lover of virtue, ever 
found a more profitable companion than Socrates, I deem 
that man the happiest of human kind.' 

§ 214. The Lacedsemonians (or Spartans) had become 
the most powerful nation of the Greeks. They pushed 
their conquests by sea, and became formidable to the 
power of Persia, at the eastern end of the Mediterranean. 
Conon, an Athenian, persuaded Artaxerxes, the king 
of Persia, that Athens must be restored, to balance Spar- 
ta. He obtained a fleet and money, conquered the Spar- 
tans on the sea, and hurried to Athens, and rebuilt its 
walls, 393 B. C, and Attica again took an independent 
part in the affairs of Greece. 

§ 215. From this time, 393 to 336 B. C. or about sixty 
years, the communities of Greece exhibit one unceasing 
struggle to gain superiority, or to preserve that^ which 
modern statesmen call 'the balance of power.' If we 
throw into this lapse of time the usual quantity of speech- 
es, missions, cunning, treachery, fighting, skill, bravery, 
desolation and misery, it makes up the history of public 
aff"airs, and date's and names may be of little interest. 
There is one course of events, in this space of time, worth 
mentioning. 

§ 216. The northern part of Greece has been little 
noticed, since the battle of Platsea. Nothing had occur- 
red there, material to our purpose. It will be recol- 
lected that Plateea is in Boeotia, forty-five miles north- 
west of Attica. Thebes, a very considerable city, ten 
miles north of Platsea, was its capital. Leuctra, nine 
miles west of Platsea, is the place of a famous battle, 
presently to be mentioned. 

<5> 217. The Spartans having been unsuccessful in their 
national vocation, war, resorted to ingenuity to keep 
peace, that their wings and talons might grow again. 
They proposed a convention at Sparta, to make a pacific 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 115 

confederation. There were, at Thebes, two remarkable 
men of very different characters, but intimate friends, 
Pelopidas and Epaminondas. The former was of noble 
descent, and of nobler qualities. The Spartans had ta- 
ken possession of Thebes, in time of peace. A tyran- 
nical faction had grown up there. Pelopidas, (with 
others,) was banished. He went to Athens while Peri- 
cles ruled. He disguised himself, returned to Thebes, 
and availing himself of a banquet, slew the tyrants, and 
freed Thebes from the Spartan yoke. He rose, deserv- 
edly, to great distinction. When the Spartans called the 
pacific council, it was supposed that Pelopidas would be 
the Theban delegate. But the Senate of Thebes unan- 
imously chose Epaminondas. His friend had the mag- 
nanimity to take no offence at this preference. 

§ 218. Epaminondas was descended from the kings 
of Boeotia. He was poor ; a Pythagorean philosopher, 
despising riches, dwelling in retirement, and was now 
forty years of age. He went to the Spartan council, and 
listened to the Spartan policy, the object of which prov- 
ed to be, that the states of Greece should all give up 
their confederacies, and alliances, and unite in a general 
one. Epaminondas inquired, whether the Spartans in- 
tended to give up»their dominion over the nations of the 
Peloponnesus, which they had conquered. He was an- 
swered, that this was not the intention, for this whole 
region now belonged to them, though Thebes was requir- 
ed to surrender all its conquests. It need hardly be 
added, that the crafty Spartans failed in their project. 
To avenge themselves, they forthwith sent an army 
against Thebes. These two famous Thebans met them, 
with half the numbers which the Spartans brought, and 
fought them triumphantly, at Leuctra, and slew 4000 
of the assailants, and Cleombrutes, their king, among the 
number. The military exploits of Epaminondas were 
in the highest degree honourable. He twice led armies 
into the Peloponnesus. He again conquered the Spar- 
tans, at Mantinea, in Arcadia, (south of the Corinthian 
gulf.) In that battle he fell, at the age of forty-eight. 
He was pierced by a dart, in the thickest of the battle. 
He was rescued, (and his shield with him,) yet living. 
His physicians told him that when the dart was extract- 
ed, he must die. When the news of victory was brought 



116 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

to him, his friends were lamenting around him his in- 
evitable death, and that he had no children to bear up 
his illustrious name; ' I leave,' said he, 'two immortal 
daughters, the victories of Leuctra and Mantinea. 1 
have lived long enough.' He drew out the dart with his 
own hands, and expired. (363 B. C.) 'He was a man,' 
(says the historian Nepos) ' adorned with every virtue, 
and stained by no vice.' Eight years were long enough 
to secure to Epaminondas an earthly immortality. What 
a touching eulogy is this man's life on rational philoso- 
phy ! Pelopidas too fell in battle, contending with a 
tyrannical chief, who reigned in Thessaly, north of Boeo- 
tia, soon after the death of his admirable countryman. 
Such were the conflicts of Greece, for sixty years ; but 
there were few such men as Pelopidas, and but one 
Epaminondas. 

^ 219. The light which Pericles had shed upon Greece 
was still brilliant amidst all the political conflicts to which 
that country was doomed. Philosophy, and the fine arts 
had taken root, too deeply to be overthrown by storms^ 
which could demolish states and empires. We will en- 
deavour to condense into a small space the events on 
these subjects, which date from some time within the 
fifth century B. C, and which are conftected with art or 
science, at the present day. 

The teaching of Socrates gave birth to moral philoso- 
phy. Before his time philosophy seems to have been 
intent on the nature and origin of things. Of this class 
of philosophers was Thales of Ionia, 610 B. C. and Py- 
thagoras, of whose place of birth nothing is known, sup- 
posed to be of Samos. He resided at Crotona, in the 
Italian colony, at the southern extremity of Italy. He 
was cotemporary with Thales, and had many disciples. 
His theory was that mankind could be governed by rea- 
son, not by force. He believed in the transmigration of 
the soul, which he learned in Egypt. There is much 
mysticism and fable, mingled in the account given of this 
eminent man. He may be considered as the founder of 
the philosophers who were called sophists. 

§220. The schools of philosophy, whence streams 
have flowed through all the learning of subsequent ages, 
are those of Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Antisthenes, and 
Zeno : all of whom may have been living at the same 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 117 

time, though of different ages. It would occupy more 
space than can be so devoted, to state the distinctions 
among these philosophers, and their numerous disciples. 
It is due to them to say, that more illustrious minds have 
not appeared among men; and their thoughts have been 
the fountains from which no small part of modern erudi- 
tion has been drawn. No one of them was born at 
Athens, though all of them were attracted thither, dur- 
ing the splendid ministry of Pericles. Hence comes the 
Socratic school, in all its varieties ; the Platonic or aca- 
demic sects, (Plato taught at the academy, outside of 
the walls, northwest from the Acropolis) ; the Aristote- 
lian or peripatetic (from Greek words meaning walking 
about, which was Aristotle's action while teaching) ; 
stoics, from Zeno, who taught in the painted stoa, or 
porch ; cynics, who were so called from despising all 
earthly good, their founder Antisthenes, a disciple of 
Socrates. 

§221. The sculpture of this age has never been ex- 
celled nor equalled. The bold, ideal, or mythologic 
style of sculpture, dates from this age, of which the ex- 
amples are numerous. Next came that of beauty and 
grace. At the head of these artists are placed Praxiteles 
and Scopas. The Venus of the latter is supposed to be 
the model of that, which has survived all time, under the 
name of Venus de Medicis. The Cupid of this age, was 
not represented as a child, but as a beautiful youth. No 
doubt the Apollo of Belvidere, and all the mythological 
sculpture of later ages, were borrowed from this. 

§ 222. Painting attained to its perfection in this time ; 
and nothing commendatory of the art appears after- 
wards, until the modern schools arose. Of these ancient 
attainments in the art, nothing is known but through 
words ; time and barbarism have spared even little of 
that excellence, which lived in marble. 

§ 223. This was rather the age in which eloquence 
arose to its highest elevation, than .that in which it be- 
gan. The Greeks were always eloquent. The machina/- 
tions of the half savage and perfidious Philip of Mace- 
donia (next north of Thessaly,) drew forth the three 
orations of Demosthenes to the Athenians, which have 
given the name of philippic to a species of eloquence. 
He was born at Athens about 375 and died 319 B. C.j 



118 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

and was therefore cotemporary with Pericles, nearly 
forty years. Isocrates was his rival, but never his equal. 
Eloquence appears to have been the true road to Athe- 
nian hearts, in which respect, hearts of that time, were 
very much like hearts of the present day. It is said of 
Demosthenes, that he made himself what he was; but he 
could not have made his own genius. Demosthenes 
sought a civic honour, sometimes conferred by the peo- 
ple for public services, and urged his pretensions in an 
oration. Isocrates made an oration against him, to 
which Demosthenes replied. Isocrates being afterwards 
compelled to leave Athens, opened a school of rhetoric 
at Syracuse, and read his oration against Demosthenes 
to his pupils. They expressed a desire to hear that of 
Demosthenes in reply. When they had heard it, they 
could not refrain from expressing their admiration. 
' What would you have thought of it,' said Isocrates, 'if 
you had heard it spoken by himself.'* 

§ 224. Some of the many works of philosophy, elo- 
quence, and poetry, of the Periclean age have come 
down to us ; and enough to show what the grace and 
elegance of that age must have been. Of the music of 
that day, nothing is known, but by description. It is 
probable, that in this the Greeks are now greatly sur- 
passed. After all, the Greeks were wanting in one 
thing. Able, learned, eloquent, and elegant as they may 
have been, they were yet barbarians in morals. In con- 
templating their character as a whole, with all their at- 
tractions, life was never worth so much among any of 
them, as it may be to every one, in free, rational, united, 
and Christian America. 

<§ 225. We are now to take leave of the glorious days 
of Greece. Little more is to be added, before the time 
when Greece, so long contending with the great power of 
Persia, saw one of her natives extend a victorious flight 
over all the Persian realms of the east. But this was only 

* It must be confessed, that there is at best, in the present day, a 
very imperfect knowledge of Grecian and Roman eloquence. There 
are entire orations in both languages on paper ; the thoughts and 
words are, therefore, known. But in what manner were these 
orations delivered ? What were the tones, the gesticulaitions, and 
even what were the common sounds given to the words which are 
now read .'' Of all this nothing is known. 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 119 

preparatory to the final extinction of its own independ- 
ence, and to subjection to a power, which had been 
gathering strength in the west. 

§ 226. PhiUp of Macedon meditated the subjugation 
of Greece. The confederated states met him at Chero- 
nea, in Boeotia, thirty-five miles northwest of Thebes, 
The confederates, led on by inexperienced and unwor- 
thy chiefs, fell in battle before the Macedonian phalanx. 
Philip, and his youthful son Alexander, commanded 
their forces ; and Greece, enfeebled by miserable coun- 
cils, dissensions, and depravity, sunk, for many years, 
from all pretension even to military fame. 

<§) 227. The assassination of Philip at the age of forty- 
seven (about 336 B. C.) prevented his complete subjuga- 
tion of Greece. Pausanias, a young Macedonian, com- 
mitted this crime, at the instigation of Persia. Alexander 
ascended the throne at the age of twenty, and we are 
next to consider his exploits in the east. 



120 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 



CHAPTER XVII. 

The reign of Alexander and its consequences, from 336 B. C. to the 
time when Greece became a Roman province in 188 B. C. 

§ 228. Alexander, the son of Philip, and pupil of 
Aristotle, was born at Pella, in Macedonia, in the year 
B. C. 356, and commenced his reign at the age of twen- 
ty, (in 336 B. C.) Greece had, in effect, already sub- 
mitted to his power, and had appointed him at this early 
age, their military chief, in the pending war with Per- 
sia. He did not wait at home for the enemy, but sought 
them by crossing the Hellespont. In twelve years he 
changed the condition of the known world, from the 
eastern limits of Roman power, to the midst of India ; 
and from the Black Sea, to the southern extent of Egypt. 
He first met the Persians at the river Granicus, a small 
river which runs north-eastwardly, parallel with the Hel- 
lespont, and twenty-five miles southeast of it, and which 
falls into the ancient Propontis, now called the Sea of 
Marmora. His force was 30,000 foot and 5000 horse ; 
that of Persia was far more numerous. He conquered, 
and passed through Asia Minor, to Damascus ; every- 
where victorious. All cities that opposed him were be- 
sieged and destroyed ; among these were Tyre of the 
Phoenicians, and Gaza of the Philistines. Egypt, re- 
joicing to be free from Persian dominion, received him 
rather as deliverer than conqueror. He founded Alex- 
andria, at the western mouth of the Nile, which became 
a magnificent city, and still exists, though greatly chang- 
ed. He entered Babylon in triumph ; took and destroy- 
ed Persepolis, the then capital of Persia. He penetrat- 
ed to the shore of the Caspian Sea, and to India. 

§229. He prepared a fleet to sail down the Indus, to 
the sea, under the command of Nearchus. This fleet, 
(passing around the south of Arabia) arrived at the head 
of the Persian gulf, while the army proceeded, suffering 
every privation and hardship, to Babylon, being dimin- 
ished to one fourth of its number, on its arrival there. 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 121 

Here he indulged in excessive pleasures, and here he 
died, at the age of 32, in the year 323 B. C. His re- 
mains were taken in a golden coffin to Alexandria. It 
is said the sarcophagus of Alexander was carried to 
the British museum, (London) about 1802, and is there 
preserved. The word sarcophagus, is derived from two 
Greek words, meaning 'flesh' and 'I eat,' because cof- 
fins were made of a kind of limestone, which had the 
quality of consuming a body placed in it, so that nothing 
remained at the end of forty days but the teeth. The 
word is now used (it is believed) to mean any durable 
sort of coffin, and not limited to such as were made of 
this peculiar sort of stone, if any such there ever was. 

§ 230. It may well be supposed, that in such an excur- 
sion, many wonderful events occurred. Alexander had 
able men with him, who have given an account of his ex- 
ploits. The details are numerous ; many of them, if 
true, are really wonderful. The story of his adventures 
is about as well worth knowing as those which are con- 
tained in the tales of the thousand and one nights. The 
principal scene of these tales, was Bagdat, a little north 
of the great city wherein a disgraceful revel closed the 
eventful life of this warrior. Historians have dignified 
him with the surname of The Great. Warriors, philoso- 
phers, statesmen, and moralists, might, respectively, add 
a substantive to that appellation, which would have very 
different significations. The transmission to his precep- 
tor, Aristotle, of materials for natural history, was ser- 
viceable to science. But whether he meant to promote 
science, or pay a compliment to himself, in remember- 
ing Aristotle, may be very questionable. 

§23L If the sole purpose of Alexander had been to 
humble, and afflict Persia, for the wrongs done to 
Greece, he would have been entitled to some respect. 
His wanton and cruel conquest of nations, who had done 
no wrong to him, or his country, and some of whom had 
hardly heard of the Greeks, till Alexander led them to 
take, plunder, and destroy their homes, may entitle him 
to be called great ; but robber, or bandit, would be no 
unjust addition. If the splendour of military glory be 
abstracted from this chief, it is difficult to find in his 
character, any thing which entitles him to his renown. 
He was daring, revengeful, malicious, selfish, voluptuous 
11 



123 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

and orueL History tells of no one good thing which he 
accomplished, or meditated ; but of many which would 
have sent any common man to the gibbet. Greatness 
then may consist, historically, in doing those acts, which 
only one in many millions could, and would do. 

§ 232. It is difficult to know, accurately, the intellect- 
ual and moral qualities of one's cotemporaries. The 
difficulty is immeasurably increased when the subject of 
inquiry is veiled by 2000 years, and is to be seen only 
through the misty medium of history. Thus, what is 
really known of Aristotle, and of his competency to be 
the preceptor of Alexander ? Did he teach him how to 
conquer by physical force, and fraud, or inculcate the 
principles of action, which have made the name of Soc- 
rates immortal ? Perhaps Aristotle knew the character 
of the Greeks, and the qualities indispensable to defence 
against them. Ability to defend, was only another name 
for the power to conquer, in that age. If it be true that 
Aristotle prepared a copy of Homer for Alexander's 
use, and that this apt scholar always had this copy with 
him, and never laid himself on his pillow, until he had 
read from it, it may be inferred that the genius of Alex- 
ander, as displayed in his glory, was fashioned on the 
model of poetic heroism, in which moral excellence was 
an element of little worth. He was one of those spirits 
who confounds the mind by the audacity of his enter- 
prises, and who would have been called a madman if he 
had miscarried. If we except his generosity, or rather 
his contempt for riches, there is not a solitary virtue to 
relieve the sombre picture of Alexander. Even the qual- 
ities which some writers admire in him may all be re- 
duced to self-gratulation and selfishness. Yet every man 
will be admired who can fascinate and command his fel- 
low men, and achieve what few men dare to attempt. 

The effect of Alexander's conquests may not be 
to his praise, so far as they were useful. This effect 
was to break down the barbarous magnificence of the 
east, and to diffuse the intellectual light which adorned 
Greece, and to disseminate the language which was the 
medium of Grecian art and science. 

<^ 233. When Alexander perceived that he was to die, 
he gave his ring to Perdiccas, his prime minister ; and 
being asked to whom he left his empire, he answered, 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 123 

' to the worthiest.' In person, Alexander was short, and 
his head was misplaced on his shoulders, or inclining to 
one side. The grief of his army at his death was ex- 
cessive. Whether he was mourned for as a chief with 
whom perils and glory had been shared, or as a man^ 
they can best judge who know the human heart. The 
admiration of military men for their chiefs, is only an 
extravagant form of selfishness ; and one which may be 
regarded with terror by all who have any thing to pre- 
serve. Except an infuriate'd mob, as in the French rev- 
olution, there is nothing so terrible in the history of man- 
kind as a general who leads a craving mercenary army, 
whose only home is a camp. Alexander's military 
chiefs, after an anarchy of some duration, intermixed 
with bloody wars, appointed a weak person, named 
Aridfeus, a son of Philip and a dancing woman, and a 
posthumous son of Alexander, by Roxana, whom he mar- 
ried in Persia, joint kings. Of these two, there is noth- 
ing to narrate. The military chiefs divided the empire 
as governors, or satraps, under these kings, but soon be- 
came kings themselves. Cassander took possession of 
Macedonia and Greece. Lysimachus had the regions 
north of Macedonia bordering on the waters which di- 
vide Europe and Asia, including ancient Byzantium, 
now Constantinople. Ptolemy had the countries around 
the eastern and southern shores of the Mediterranean, 
including Egypt. Seleucus had most of Asia Minor, 
Syria, and the territories watered by the Euphrates and 
Tigris, and all eastward of these ; and Antigonus a king-^ 
dom between Seleucus and Cassander. 

§234. The Grecian kingdom passed through several 
successors for about 140 years, when it became a pro- 
vince of the Roman empire. During all this time ty- 
ranny, violence, and crime, seemed to be the prominent 
elements of history in fallen Greece. The events of 
Lysimachus' reign, and of his successors, are not impor- 
tant enough to be considered. Seleucus founded an em- 
pire, the seat of which was the celebrated city of Anti- 
och, at the northeast corner of the Mediterranean, which 
endured for about 230 years, till the Romans became 
masters of the east. This period of history is distin- 
guished as the reign of the Seleucidse. The usual quanti- 
ty of warsj violence, crimes, magnificence, and suffer-" 



124 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

ings, makes up the historical events of this lapse of 
time. 

§ 235. Ptolemy founded the empire of the Ptolemies 
in Egypt. He is called Ptolemy Soter, and deserves to 
be respectfully noticed as the friend of philosophy and 
learning. He assumed the title of king, nineteen years 
after the death of Alexander, or in 304 B. C. He reign- 
ed twenty years, and .at the age of eighty resigned his 
kingdom to his son Philadelphus. Ptolemy Soter was 
called also Lagus. He was a Macedonian, and supposed 
to be the son of Philip. He had the surname Soter 
(Saviour) from the Rhodians (Isle of Rhodes, where the 
famous colossal statue stood) to whom he rendered an es- 
sential service. He died 284 B. C. This dynasty com- 
prised eleven successive sovereigns, whose average of 
years was nearly twenty-seven on the throne. This is 
the longest duration (294 years) for the like number of 
sovereigns, within the range of history. The first, the 
second, and the third (who was called Euergetes) of the 
Ptolemies, were the patrons of learning and of public 
improvements, and restored to Egypt its ancient fame, 
adorned with the embellishments of Gr6cian taste. 

§ 236. Among the causes of the decline of Athens, was 
the establishment of the Alexandrian school, at the seat 
of Egyptian empire. The first Ptolemy began the cele- 
brated library of Alexandria, which was greatly extend- 
ed and enriched by his son and grandson. Here were 
assembled the philos(5phers, the poets, the orators, and 
the men of science, from all the shores of the Mediterra- 
nean. Here was the seat of commerce, and of royal 
splendour, whose chief honour was its patronage of the 
human mind. Here originated the eclectic school of 
philosophy, formed out of the western and eastern theo- 
ries, by selecting from either, what its votaries approved. 

§ 237. The most magnificent part of Alexandria was 
near the great harbour, and was called Bruction. This 
was the royal residence. Here was the academy, and 
the museum, and 400,000 volumes of the library, in an 
appropriate building; the residue 300,000 were in the 
temple of Jupiter Serapis, called the Serapion. In the 
siege of Alexandria by Julius Caesar, a part of this libra- 
ry was destroyed. The remainder of it, with accessions 
to it, after that time, was utterly destroyed about the 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 125 

year 389 of the Christian era. Theodosius the Roman 
emperor, having been converted to Christianity, ordered 
all the pagan temples of the empire to be demolished. 
The magnificent Serapion was reduced, among others, 
to a heap of rubbish. In this fanatical exploit, the 
friends of learning lament the loss of nearly all the 
treasures which intellectual industry had been gathering 
through successive ages. 

The last of the eleven sovereigns of Egypt, of the 
Ptolemy race, was the beautiful, profligate, and ac- 
complished Cleopatra, who put herself to death (in the 
year 30) that she might not grace the triumphal entry of 
Octavius into Rome. 

<^ 238. For one hundred and fifty years after the death 
of Alexander, Greece underwent a variety of woes and 
afflictive revolutions ; was divided into many factious 
communities, and suffered severely from the aspirations 
of the ambitious. Almost every species of cruelty was 
practised on the subjugated, and every vice by the suc- 
cessful. No names or events occur, in this space of 
time, which are worth mentioning, except the names of 
Pyrrhus king of Epirus, who was a very able general 
about the beginning of the third century, and whose prin- 
cipal exploits occurred in Roman history, wherein he 
will be again mentioned. And excepting also Philopce- 
men. He was born at Megalopolis, about the year 223 
B. C, a city of Arcadia, which was the central state of 
the Peloponnesus. Several of the states and cities of 
this part of Greece, had formed themselves into a con- 
federacy for mutual defence, under the name of the 
Achaean League, the state of Achaia being the principal 
member. The Spartans were not parties in this con- 
federacy. The Messenians were, and revolted from it. 
They were assisted by the Spartans. Philopoemen was 
the military chief of the confederacy. He conquered 
the Spartans, and put an end to the laws of Lycurgus. 
They had been in force about seven hundred years. 
This distinguished man was called ' the last of the Gre- 
cians.' In a battle with the Messenians, he fell from his 
horse, and was taken by the enemy, who imprisoned him, 
and made him drink poison, about the year 188 B. C, at 
the age of seventy. On taking the cup he asked which 
party had the victory, and being answered his own party, 
11* 



126 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

then said he, ' this is a comfortable drink.' Soon after, 
all Greece was subdued by the Romans. But even for 
two centuries after this, learning; and philosophy still 
lingered in Greece, and young Romans were sent to 
Grecian cities to be educated, and especially to Athens. 
"5> 239. Ail around the Mediterranean we have already 
encountered the Romans as conquerors. Before engag- 
ing in a sketch of the rise, grandeur, and decline of these 
successors of the Greeks, we are to revisit Judea, and 
accompany the Jews from their return at the close of 
their seventy years of captivity, to the demolition of Jeru- 
salem, and their final dispersion as a people, in the year 
70 of the Christian era. 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 127 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

From the end of Jewish captivity, 536 years B. C, to the beginning 
of the Christian era, 

§ 240. We left the Israelites at the close of their sev- 
enty years of captivity, at Babylon, on the point of re- 
turning to Jiiclea. This people were first known under 
the name of Hebrews, then as Israelites, then as subjects 
of the two separate kingdoms o/ Israel and Judah. From 
this time, they are called Jews ; a name given, not by 
themselves, but by others. They returned in the year 
536 B. C. The number of men is stated at 42,360 ; 
these, with their families, may have amounted to 200,000. 

§241. The territory of the Jews was now considered 
as a province appurtenant to the government (or satra- 
py) of Syria, as part of the Persian empire, but they were 
allowed to have their own laws, religion, and rulers. 
Ezra and Zerubbabel, were among those who returned. 
Soon after, Nehemiah, who appears to have been a man 
of great wealth and distinction, went to Jerusalem to aid 
in rebuilding the temple, and to re-establish the Mosaic 
dispensation. These objects were accomplished. But 
there seems to be some ground for the opinion, that the 
Jews had become disquaUfied to maintain this system of 
government. They had been exposed to the delusions of 
Chaldean priestcraft in their long residence in the east, 
and some writers suppose, that to this cause may be re- 
ferred the origin of the sects of Sadducees and Phari- 
sees. These, in after times, were very troublesome dis- 
tinctions among the Jews. 

<5>242. There is nothing in Jewish history worth stop- 
ping to notice, till Alexander of Macedon appeared in 
Judea. It will be remembered, that down to this time, 
Greece and Persia were almost continually engaged in 
warfare with each other, wherein the Jews do not ap- 
pear to have been concerned. They were out of the 
course in which the tide of war ebbed and flowed, which 
was much to the north of their position. They were not 



128 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

free from bitter contentions among themselves, for the 
honours of the priesthood. In this space of time they 
were free from foreign wars, and subject to Persia, but to 
no severe exactions. The annual pilgrimage and gift, 
which every Jew was obliged to make to the temple, ac- 
cumulated a treasure, surpassing that of Solomon's time. 

§243. About the year 331 B. C, Alexander visited Je- 
rusalem, as conqueror ; and Avas not resisted. Josephus 
says, (Book xi, ch. 8,) that while Alexander was besieg- 
ing Tyre, he wrote to the high priest to send him auxil- 
iaries and provisions. These were refused ; and Alex- 
ander gave him to understand, that he would soon be at 
Jerusalem. Jaddua, the high priest, was much disturbed 
by this news. When this visitor was near, the high 
priest and his train, went out to meet him, clad in official 
dress of purple, scarlet, and fine linen ; followed by a 
multitude in white garments. Jaddua, distinguished by 
his mitre, and bearing the plate of gold whereon the 
name of Jehovah was inscribed, was met by the conquer- 
or and saluted with deepest reverence. Parmenio 
asked him, how it came to pass, that while all others 
adored him, he should adore the high priest of the Jews 1 
He answered, that he did not adore the priest, but his 
God. He added, that he had seen the exact figure of this 
priest in a dream, when at Dios in Macedon, and was as- 
sured in that dream, that he should conquer the Persians. 
It is said of Alexander, that he had a convenient facility 
in adapting himself to the manners and prejudices of any 
country. Perhaps Napoleon, who turned Mussulman in 
Egypt, was not ignorant of Alexander's policy. The 
Jews were assured by him, that they should remain as 
they were, and be exempt from all taxation in the ' sev- 
enth year ; ' and that when he was master of Babylon, 
the Jews there, should be respected in like manner. 

§244. After Alexander's empire had been divided 
among his generals, about 300 B. C, the Jews had, for 
northern neighbours, the Seleucidse, (or Syrians,) suc- 
cessors of Seleucus; and the Ptolemies in Egypt. From 
the hostihty of these two powers, and from their own 
factions and intestine wars, and from their own de- 
pravities, they were, probably, the most miserable peo- 
ple, for three hundred years, of which history gives ac- 
count. At the close of this time, their proud city was 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 129 

left without ' one stone upon another,' and themselves 
were scattered over the earth. It would be tedious and 
unprofitable, to detail Jewisli events, during this long pe- 
riod. A few circumstances may be. worth notice. 

^ 245. Jndea was subdued by Ptolemy Philadelphus 
about 316 B. C, and 100,000 Jews carried to Egypt as 
slaves. But Ptolemy relented, and restored the privi- 
leoes of Judea. This was before the division of Alexan- 
der's empire had been settled, and while his generals 
were contending, because five years afterwards Antigo- 
nus, one of their number, got possession of Judea, and 
treated the Jews so tyrannically that great numbers of 
them fled to Egypt, and many into Syria. Thus they 
were harassed continually, on one side and the other, 
till about the year 200 B. C, when Antiochus, king of 
Syria, in consideration of their aid against one of the 
Ptolemies, granted them money, and other contributions 
towards rebuilding and adorning their temple, which 
had been several times pillaged. The only tranquil and 
prosperous period folh)wed these events, and lasted per- 
haps twenty years. When the Jews had no foreign en- 
emy to afflict them, they seem to have invented means of 
afflicting themselves. Their own contentions introduced 
the Syrians again, and another Antiochus, about the 
year 170, who plundered their temple, and resolved on 
exterminating their whole race, if he could not abolish 
their religion. He converted their holy temple into a 
place for the adoration of the Grecian Jupiter. 

§246. Matthias, and his five sons, exasperated by 
these cruelties, and abominations, resisted ; and estab- 
lished a dynasty of kings, who maintained themselves, 
through tremendous conflicts, 129 years. This was the 
reign of the Maccabees; so called from Judas, surnamed 
Maccabseus (the hammer) from his warlike character. 
This race were also called Asmoneans (illustrious.) 

§ 247. By this time the Romans had found their way 
into Judea, and assisted to annihilate the power of the 
Maccahess, and then established their own. After sever- 
al years of frightful crimes, and miseries, in the year 65 
B. C, Herod, who was the son of an Arabian named 
Antipater, contrived to get himself made king of Judea, 
by the authority of the Romans. This man may claim 
precedence of all royal robbers, murderers, and low bred 



130 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

villains, who have at any time appeared in the world. 
He is, nevertheless, called by historians, Herod the 
Great. It seems, that historians, who appear to be the 
authority from which this sort of distinction comes, pay 
no respect to virtues, or moral qualities, in deciding on 
the use of it. The command of great physical force, 
and the employment of it, for purposes of conquest and 
destruction, appear to be two elements of greatness. If 
such a person has filled his treasury, no matter by what 
means, and uses his money to build cities, this seems to 
constitute another element. In these respects Herod 
may have been great. He built Csesarea, a city on the 
Mediterranean shore, 62 miles northwest of Jerusalem. 
It was here that Paul made Felix tremble. Csesarea has 
long been a ruin, tenanted only by reptiles and birds of 
prey ; and serving no useful purpose but as a marble 
quarry for building. 

There were two or three women about Herod, named 
Salome, whom history notices. One of them was his sis- 
ter, who ought to have been dignified with the title of 
great ; for, if rightly represented, she was, probably, the 
greatest criminal that ever lived. There was a relative 
of Herod of the same name, (the dancer, called Hero- 
dias in scripture,) who procured the death of John the 
Baptist. 

§248. In the thirty-third year of Herod's reign, the 
Saviour was born. A year or two afterwards Herod died 
of a most loathsome disease, which is minutely described 
by Josephus. When he knew that he must die, he com- 
manded that all the principal men among the Jews, 
should be assembled at a place of public show called the 
Hippodrome ; and no one dared to disobey this order. 
He told his wife, and chief officer, that he was resolved 
to put his whole kingdom in mourning, at his death ; 
and as there would be no natural tears for him, that as 
soon as he died, the whole of the assembly in the Hip-^ 
podrome should be put to death, so that there should be 
abundance of tears, as every family in Judea would 
weep. This order was not executed. There were two 
other Herods after him. Before the death of the third, 
a violent civil war, and revolt from the Romans occur- 
red, and Vespasian came from Rome, with an army; 
and while before Jerusalem, being chosen emperor, he 
left the siege to the conduct of his son Titus ; who on 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 131 

the 7th of Sept. A. D. 70, erased Jerusalem from the 
face of the earth. This is the date of the dispersion of 
the Jews. 

§ 249. The prominent events Avhich occurred around 
the eastern end of the Mediterranean, from the creation 
to the christian era, have been noticed, though only in a 
rapid flight. Let us stop, and review the past, that we 
may the better understand the future. 

It has been seen, that every community had necessari- 
ly some sort of government, in virtue of which one, a 
few, or many, could exercise power over the multitude, 
and over property, and the means of welfare. That all 
these communities have been subjected to revolutions, or 
to vindictive and bitter factions ; and that all of them 
disappeared by some sort of violence ; that the principal 
employment was war, and that men had been, in all 
ages, the relentless foes of each other, and striving to the 
utmost to plunder, destroy, and slaughter, or reduce to 
slavery. 

§ 250. With the qualified exceptilon among the de- 
scendants of Abraham, we have seen, everywhere, the 
perversion of the natural sentiment of religion ; and the 
great mass of mankind in subjection to a small number 
of cunning and adroit dealers in absurd and shocking 
mysteries. We have seen nowhere, the exercise or in- 
fluence of rational morals, except in the life and conduct 
of a few illustrious men, who were either feared or des- 
pised for their singularity. 

§ 251. The philosophy which arose in Greece, and 
which attained to its best condition in the mind of Socra- 
tes, gradually extended its light, and disclosed, that the 
worship of such deities as Jupiter, Mars, 3Iinerva, and 
Apollo, was the invention of priests ; and that there must 
be some unknown and unapproachable power. The 
human mind could not discern the connection between 
that power, and human duty. For two or more centuries 
before the Christian era, even those restraints which 
heathen worship had imposed, had disappeared; and the 
services in the temples were scenes, wherein the most 
abominable depravity assumed the mysteries, which an 
exploded religion could no longer wear. In common 
life, every vice and every crime could flourish, if the 
hand of the executioner could be escaped. 



132 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

^252. The easy and beautiful language of Greece had 
supplanted the difficult sounds, and more difficult char- 
acters, of primitive languages. It had become the medi- 
um of thought, throughout the nations which were then 
considered as constituting the world. Who can doubt, 
that if there could be a time when a new revelation was 
indispensable in the earth, it would be when earthly re- 
ligions had lost their power, when moral perceptions 
were extinguished, and when the will of man was the 
only law he knew. 

§ 253. It is a striking fact that in the reign of Herod, 
and before that time, an expectation prevailed through- 
out the east, that some great, though undefined revolu- 
tion, was to occur among mankind. If this expectation 
had been limited to the depraved and suffering Jews, it 
might be referred to their prophetic w^ritings. The evi- 
dence comes from sober and respected historians (who 
were not of that people) that this expectation was gen- 
eral. Caius Tranquillus Suetonius, a Roman historian 
who appeared aboift this time, says, ' There had been for 
a long time, all over the east, a constant persuasion, that 
it was in the fates, that at that time, some [person] 
who should come out of Judea, should obtain universal 
dominion.' Caius Cornelius Tacitus, a Roman histori- 
an of the same age, says, 'the generality had a strong 
persuasion that it was contained in the ancient writings 
of the priests, that, at that very time, the east should pre- 
vail, and that some, who should come out of Judea, 
should obtain the empire of the world.' Flavius Jose- 
phus, the historian of the Jew^s, was among the rebels 
against the Romans, when Jerusalem was destroyed. 
He is considered as having abandoned his faith as a Jew, 
and to have adhered to the conquerors, when he vvrote. 
In speaking of this rebellion he says, ' That which chief- 
ly excited the Jews to war, was an ambiguous prophecy, 
which vs^as also found in the' sacred books, that at that 
time, some one within their country, should arise, that 
should obtain the empire of the whole world.' 

§ 254. It takes nothing from the fact of the existence 
of this general belief, that all three of these writers ap- 
ply it to Vespasian, whose subjects they were, and who 
was elected emperor, while he was besieging Jerusalem. 
It is even insisted in order to make the application more 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 133 

strong as to this emperor, that he actually wrought mira- 
cles, in restoring sight, and curing blindness. 

§255. ^ At this time,'' that person was born whose life 
and precepts have changed, and are going on to change, 
yet more and more, the condition of mankind. Figura- 
tively, he will obtain the empire of the world, in that his 
religion will pervade the world. The general expecta- 
tion, stated by these historians, must be understood in 
this sense, as it cannot be understood in any other. 

§256. If one should reject all confidence in divine in- 
terposition as to human concerns, it is a remarkable his- 
torical fact (if any thing be true in history) and difficult 
to be accounted for, that Abraham should have left a 
land of idolatry 1900 years before the birth of this per- 
so]v at Bethlehem, and that the lineal descent of this 
PERSON should be traced down through all the vicissi- 
tudes of Abraham's posterity. Certain it is, that Joseph 
the husband of Mary, and Mary herself, were both de- 
scended from Abraham and from Jesse, through David. 
To those who do give credit to the providence of God, 
and who do respect the evidence derived from prophecy, 
and Mosaic history, the coming of the Saviour ad- 
mits of no doubt. Surely the world could, at no time, 
have so needed a Saviour, as in that in which he did 
come. 

§ 257. It is not the purpose of these pages to sustain 
any religious theory, or doctrine ; but only to show how 
the connection and course of events have chano-ed the 
condition of mankind, from age to age. There will be 
occasion to show, in future pages, what effect the ap- 
pearance of the son of Mary on earth, has had on human 
society. At present, it is only taken as a historical fact, 
sustained, however, by far more convincing evidence, 
than is found of any other, of like antiquity.* 

* The following summary is copied from Calmet's dictionary of 
the Bible, edited by Professor Robinson, art. Christ. 

* The ancient prophets had foretold, that the Messiah should be 
God and man, exalted and abased, master and servant, priest 
and victim, prince and subject; involved in death, yet victor over 
death ; rich and poor ; a king, a conqueror, glorious ; a man of griefs, 
exposed to infirmities; unknown, in a state of abjection and humili- 
ation. All these contrarieties were to be reconciled in the person of 
the Messiah ; as they really were in the person of Jesus. It was 
known, that the Messiah was to be born, 1. of a virgin ; 2. of the 

12 



134 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

§ 258. We have necessarily passed over the time when 
the Romans first appeared. We have met with them all 
around the eastern end of the Mediterranean, as a war- 
like and victorious people. We are now to consider 
them separately, and accompany them down to the time 
when they acquired the empire of the world. From that 
time, till they were themselves subdued, the history of 
the world is almost exclusively their history. 

tribe of Judah ; 3. of the race of David; 4. in the village of Bethle- 
hem. That he was to continue forever, that his coming was to be 
concealed, that he was the great prophet promised in tlae law, that 
he was both the son, and Lord of David; that he was to perform 
great miracles, that he should restore all things, that he should die, 
and rise again, that Elias should be the forerunner of his appearance, 
that the proof of his verity should be cure of lepers, life restored 
to the dead, and the gospel preached to the poor. That he should 
not destroy the law, but should perfect and fulfil it ; that he should 
be a stone of offence, and stumbling block, against which many 
should bruise themselves ; that he should suffer infinite oppositions, 
and contradictions ; that from his time, idolatry and impiety should 
be banished, and that distant people should submit themselves to his 
authority.' 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 135 



CHAPTER XIX. 

The Romans — from their first appearance to the end of their mon- 
archy, 50G B. C. 

§ 259. How should it have happened, that the states 
of Greece, aided by a peninsular situation, speaking the 
same language, associated by the Olympic games, and 
the same religious worship, should exhibit, throughout 
their history, ferocious factions, and desolating wars ? 
Perhaps this may be accounted for by the fact, that they 
had not the industrious occupations, which are founded 
in commerce ; and that slaves were the only labourers, 
and that they were themselves restless in body, and mind. 
Such states might naturally be jealous of each other ; 
they might, merely from the want of useful and com- 
mendable occupation, become rivals, and enemies. Unit- 
ed, they might have defied the world, and might have 
obtained and held, as dependencies, all the countries 
then known. If they had not wasted their force in 
destroying each other, Rome might have appeared, in 
connection with Greece, only as a colony, or province. 
It will be seen, that it was destined to be itself an insig- 
nificant province of Rome. 

§ 260. The history of the Romans, is not the history 
of many states, but of a single city gradually extending 
its hmits, and its dominion, until it became the mistress 
of all known regions. Its inhabitants, as to slaves, ab- 
sence of occupation, and consequent restlessness, and 
love of war, were like the Greeks. The factions, civil 
commotions, and bloody changes from one sort of des- 
potism, to another, which were seen in many cities in 
Greece, occurred among the Romans, in one city. Their 
jealousies, rivalries and personal enmities, were spent on 
each other ; their love of dominion on all nations, as 
well as among themselves. Conquest became a nation- 
al passion. While one independent people remained, 
Rome had not done her duty to herself. Both these na- 
tions were, at times, great and glorious ; both were, at 



136 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

times, exceedingly miserable. Neither of them were, at 
any time, a happy people, for both of them were, at all 
times, strangers to rational religion, and sound morals. 

§261. The city of Rome, the beginning of which can- 
not be certainly traced, still exists ; and is likely to con- 
tinue. It is even called the ' eternal city,' under the 
belief, that the remnants of its grandeur, and rever- 
ence for Roman names and deeds, will protect it from 
the desolation which has fallen on most other cities of 
like antiquity. It is situated in the peninsula of Italy, 
on the river Tiber, about twelve miles from the mouth 
of this river, which runs through it, and continues 
thence a south-western course to the Tuscan Sea. Its 
latitude about 42. north ; (nearly the same as Boston.) 
Its longitude, nearly 30. east. Its site is now much less 
extensive than it was anciently. Modern Rome is rath- 
er on the northwest side of the river ; ancient Rome was 
principally on the southeast side of the river, built on 
seven hills. 

§ 262. This peninsula in climate, in variety of surface, 
and in natural fertility is one of the most pleasing parts 
of the globe. Its length, beginning at Rome, and going 
south-eastwardly to its extreme limit (into the Mediter- 
ranean) is about 350 miles ; its average breadth south of 
Rome may be about 100 miles. A chain of mountains 
called the Appenines, runs through its whole length. 
The summits of these mountains are covered with snow, 
and ice, the greater portion of the year ; but the valleys 
and plains from their proximity to the sea, experience 
neither the intense cold of winter, nor the enfeebling 
heat of summer. The clear and beautiful skies of Italy, 
serve as a standard for comparison of other climes. It 
is the most favoured region of the earth, for villas, and 
summer residence, in the felicity of rural retreats. Its 
natural productions are excellent and abundant. The 
vine and the olive flourish together. Its riches, in pas- 
toral products were not surpassed ; and it was the fa- 
vourite region of the mulberry and the silk worm. It 
had the most favourable position as to surrounding seas, 
Greece only excepted. North-westwardly from Rome, 
the peninsula extends about 200 miles, and is perhaps 
40 miles wider, than it is south of Rome. 

§ 263. The origin of the Romans is unknown. The 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 137 

first historical sketches of this people come, as in other 
cases, from their bards, or poets. As these knew no 
more of the earliest people of Italy than is now known, 
nor even so much, they, like other labourers in works of 
fancy, deduced the Romans from the gods, and from 
supernatural events. The true state of the case must 
be, that there were migrations from the east, in some un- 
known time and manner, through whom Italy was peo- 
pled with barbarous tribes. Some one of these, by fraud 
and force, gained an ascendancy over many, and united 
them into one community. As this end must have been 
accomplished by military power, the chief leader natur- 
ally became a king. Some fables are found in history, 
of two persons called Romulus and Remus, from the 
former of which the name of Rome is supposed to have 
been derived. How it was known, when authentic his- 
tory begins, that there ever were two such persons, is 
not apparent. It is, at least, probable, that all the early 
history of the Romans, is entirely fabulous. It is be- 
lieved, that so much of Roman history is derived from 
the work of Titus Livius, who was born at Padua 59 
B. C, and who died there, at the age of 7.5. He is sup- 
posed to have devoted twenty years to his history. A 
small portion of his 140 books are now extant. Livius 
(usually called Livy) begins with the arrival of ^Eneas in 
Italy. This person, son of Anchises, a Trojan, fled 
from Troy, according to the Latin poet Virgilius (Virgil), 
and after divers surprising adventures, by sea and land, 
arrived in Italy, and was one of the founders of the Ro- 
man empire. Whatever facts this poet may have dealt 
in, the lovers of verse render due homage to his taste 
and fancy. A poet must have touched the cords of the 
human heart with a masterly hand, to have earned the 
applause of his own, and all future times ; and whose 
works are read with delight in all nations which pretend 
to learning. 

Passing by all the fables which are given of times 
preceding the monarchy of Rome, (that is leaving out 
all before Romulus, as too uncertain to be mentioned,) 
it is commonly assumed, that there were seven suc- 
cessive kings named Romulus, Numa Pompilius, Tullius 
Hostilius, Ancus Martins, Tarquinius Priscus, Servius 
Tullius, Tarquinius Superbus. That the first of these 
12* 



138 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK, 

began to reign in the year of the world about 3257 ; in the 
year of the building of the city, 1 ; and in the year B. C. 
753. The last of them ceased to reign in about 506 
B. C, comprising a space of about two hundred and for- 
ty-seven years. If so, the royal government ended in the 
time of Darius of Persia, and of his queen Esther; and 
just before the beginning of the wars between the Per- 
sians and Greeks ; and soon after Pisistratus, in Athens. 

§ 264. To these kings certain institutions are attribu- 
ted. Romulus is supposed to have settled all the forms 
and ceremonies of religion. There were priests, among 
whom were Haruspices, who ascertained the will of the 
gods, by inspecting the entrails of animals slain at the al- 
tar; and augurs, who obtained the like information, from 
watching the flight and actions of birds and of chickens. 
In this reign happened the forcible carrying away of the 
Sabine women, by the Romans, who were in want 
of wives. By this king, domestic relations were estab- 
lished, and absolute power given to fathers over their 
children, even to the taking of life. It is said that there 
was no instance of parricide in ten centuries ; and only 
one of divorce, in six centuries, among the Romans. But 
how these things were known to be so, does not appear. 
Numa Pompilius is highly applauded as a king. He 
strengthened the priesthood ; and raised a temple to the 
god Terminus, to protect rights of property, and made it 
an infamous crime to remove landmarks. His most 
commendable act was the consecration of a temple to the 
god Janus, who had two faces, looking in opposite direc- 
tions. This v/as intended to be emblematical of the pru- 
dence which should be observed, in deciding on war. 
If all that is said of Numa, or one half of it, be true, he 
was one of the best of men, and, undoubtedly, the best 
king, that ever lived. He has been much celebrated in 
works of fancy. 

§ 265. It was in this reign, that the heroic and affect- 
ing combat occurred between the three brothers Horatii, 
and the three brothers Curiatii, as a substitute for a bat- 
tle between the armies of their respective nations. This 
story is told seven centuries after the combat, with as 
much exactness, as to what was said and done, as though 
the historian (Livy) had been there to see and hear for 
himself. The sister of the victor (one of the Horatii, 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 139 

of the Roman side) was affianced to one of the Curiatii. 
Seeing in the possession of her surviving brother, a tro- 
phy, wrought with her own hands, for her lover, she 
burst into tears, and reproached him with his cruelty. 
Whereupon he slew her; for which he was condemned; 
but the people interposed, and saved his life. 

<5> 266. The accounts given of the events of the mon- 
archy, in that early age, are so improbable, that they 
hardly merit to be repeated. They may be read as works 
of imagination; but they oui^ht not to be treated of as 
authentic history, which at best, in ancient days, is enti- 
tled to no more respect as to truth, than Homer's Iliad, 
and A^irgil's iEneid. There is one fable well worth no- 
ticing, as it is often alluded to. In the reign of the last 
of the kings, (Tarquinthe Proud,) an old woman, an un- 
known foreigner, appeared, and presented to Tarquin, 
nine books. She was called a sybil, and the books syb- 
illine. She demanded an exorbitant price for them. It 
was refused. She retired, and burnt three of the books; 
and returning, demanded the same price for the remain- 
ing six. It was again refused. She retired, a second 
time, and burnt three more ; and again presenting her- 
self to Tarquin, demanded the same price for the remain- 
ing three. The price was paid. The sybil commended 
her books to the faithful guardianship of the king, then 
disappeared, and was seen no more. These books prov- 
ed to be worth the money. At first, two persons, and 
afterwards fifteen, were appointed to keep them. These 
persons, and none others, were allowed to read them. 
It is not surprising, that in all emergencies of the Ro- 
mans, these oracular volumes were found to contain pre- 
cisely the information, which it was indispensable for the 
people to have. 

§ 267. It is stated, that a building was erected, about 
this time, at Rome, whether for the purpose of making a 
place for the deposit, or not, of the sybilline books, (or 
leaves) does not appear. This building was two hundred 
feet long, as many high, and almost as many broad. It 
contained three temples, one dedicated to Jupiter, one 
to Juno, one to Minerva. The books were put into a 
stone chest, and deposited in a vault in this building. 
This circumstance may not have been worth mentioning, 
if it were not, that it is supposed to show the origin of the 



140 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

word capitvl. The head of a person whose name was 
Tolus, (who had been buried two hundred years!) was 
found, while digging for the foundation, bleeding as fresh 
as though it had just been severed from the body. From 
this fact, the place was called caput-toli,* which soon 
became capitol. Historians do not inform us, how this 
bleeding head was known to be that of Tolus. 

§ 268. The tragical end of the Tarquins, is narrated 
with all the gravity of history, comprising all the details. 
A son of Tarquin the Proud, committed a most shocking 
outrage on Lucretia, the daughter of Brutus, and wife 
of Collatinus. Lucretia was then at a country residence. 
She came to Rome next day, and disclosed the wrong 
done by young Tarquin ; and unable to survive her dis- 
grace, she plunged a dagger into her own heart. Her 
bleeding person was borne to the presence of the assem- 
bled people. Vengeance was sworn against the Tar- 
quins. A civil war ensued, and after divers bloody con- 
flicts, the race of Tarquins was exterm.inated, and with 
them, the monarchy. Brutus exacted of the Romans a 
solemn oath, that they would never again be ruled by a 
king. 

* Head of Tolus, 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 141 



CHAPTER XX. 

The Romans, from the end of the monarchy, 506 B. C. to the taking 
and burning of Rome by the Gauls, under Brennus, in the year 
390 B. C. 

^ 269. The Romans substituted two consuls, annually 
elected by the people, for a king. Tlie two first consuls 
were the same Lucius Junius Brutus, and his son-in-law, 
Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus. The friends of the ex- 
pelled royal family, made an effort to restore them. 
(Precisely the same sort of effort has just been made in 
France.) Two sons of Brutus were among the conspir- 
ators who desired to restore the Tarquins. Being de- 
tected, they were brought before Brutus, who, putting 
ofiL the father, that he might act the consul, ordered them 
to be beheaded, and sat and saw the execution, without 
betraying the least sensibility. This is called a fine ex- 
ample of patriotism, and magnanimity. Brutus and his 
son-in-law did not agree in their official relation ; he 
caused Collatinus to be removed, and Valerius, surnamed 
Publicola, or the popvdar, to be chosen. 

§ 270. The Tarquins, like the Bourbons, and the Stu- 
arts of England, were not disposed to give up the throne. 
They engaged neighbouring nations, who feared and 
hated the Romans, to wage war for them. In a battle, 
Brutus and one of the Tarquins met, and had the satis- 
faction of killing each other. Valerius returned to Rome 
in a car drawn by four horses, which is, probably, the 
beginning of the Roman triumphs. An oration was 
made over the dead body of Brutus. This is said to be 
the first instance of that sort of honour. The wars of the 
Tarquins were continued through several years ; and 
they were enabled to disturb the peace of Rome, by the 
plots of their partisans. The people were influenced in 
their favour, and could only be restrained by severity. 
They were debtors to the higher classes ; and the law 
of debtor and creditor was severe, and rigorously enfor- 
ced. The anarchy became such, that an absolute au- 



142 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

thority, civil, military, and religious, was necessarily re- 
posed in one man, who acted under the name of Dictator. 
Titus Lartius was the first officer of this name. 

§ 271. The Tarquius having been entirely vanquished, 
other wars arose. The people, oppressed at home, and 
expecting no benefit from any victories, were disinclined 
to fight. They took their standards, which their religion 
forbad them to abandon, and retired to a mountain 
three miles from Rome, since called Mons Sacer (sacred 
mount.) This event gave rise to the well known fable 
of the mutual dependence of the stomach, and the mem- 
bers. The people gained, in this controversy, the abo- 
lition of debts, and the appointment of an officer from 
among themselves, called a Tribune of the people, whose 
exclusive business it was, to take care of their interests. 

<^ 272. The population of Rome appears to have been 
divided, at this time, into two classes, the rich and noble, 
who were called patrician, a word derived from the 
Latin pater, (father,) and as such they had the lands, and 
houses; and the other class were plebeians, from the 
Latin word plebs, (people). The interests of these two 
classes were much opposed to each other. The tribunes 
protected and encouraged the people, against the patri- 
cians. Great disorders arose, which the tribunes secretly, 
and even openly, abetted. Coriolanus, (whose story is, at 
this day, one of the popular dramas) was a patrician. He 
rendered great public services. The tribunes were jeal- 
ous of him, and he was indigniant at their usurpations. 
At length, he was accused of misconduct in his office 
of military chief, and condemned to perpetual exile. He 
returned to his house, where his mother, Veturia, and 
his wife, Volumnia, were in tears. '^I have no mother,' 
said he, 'no wife, no children; I abjure them all, even 
to my domestic gods!' — He departed, and went to the 
Volsci. He led this people against Rome, and took se- 
vere vengeance. When Rome trembled before Coriola- 
nus, and repeated embassies failed to soften him, his 
mother, wife, and children, and a train of Roman matrons 
were sent as suppliants. The whole of this scene is re- 
presented, in history, with the like precision, in which it 
appears on the stage. The very speeches, and attitudes 
are given, as though historians had been spectators. It 
is unfeeling to doubt the existence of so touching an 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 143 

event ; or to question whether Coriolanus did actually 
say, ' Oh ! my mother ! You have disarmed me ! You 
have saved Rome ! but you have lost your son !' It is 
quite reasonable, that this event should have been follow- 
ed by the consecration of a temple 'to the Fortune of 
women,' and that Veturia should have been the first priest- 
ess ; and not less so, that the Volsci should have caused 
Coriolanus to be assassinated. 

§ 273. History of ancient times, derives some support 
from seeing how modern scenes, and motives, agree with 
its details. Cassius, a patrician consul, being mortified 
by a refusal of the senate to grant him a triumph, pro- 
posed the agrarian law, whicli name is derived from the 
word agrarius, relating to fields, or lands. When lands 
were conquered, they belonged to the public. The pa- 
tricians usually got possession of them, to the exclusion 
of the plebeians. (The object of agrarian laws was an 
equalization of property, in the conquered lands.) The 
tribunes disliked the measure, because it came from a 
patrician, and not from themselves. They then took up 
this matter, and compelled the senate to agree to appoint 
ten men, (Decemvirs) to make the division. They also 
caused Cassius to be accused of treason, before the peo- 
ple, who condemned him to be thrown from the Tarpe- 
ian rock. This was a mode of execution.. This rock 
was part of the eminence, on which the capitol stood. 
It was eighty feet in perpendicular height. The con- 
demned were thrown from the summit. The senate de- 
layed to nominate decemvirs, and resorted to an expedi- 
ent, well known in these days, that of provoking a new 
war. The people declining to engage in this, the family 
of the Fabii, in number about three hundred, undertook 
to do the fighting. All the Fabii fell but one, a youth 
of eighteen. 

§ 274. The contests about the agrarian law continued, 
and another of greater importance was added. The tri- 
bunes demanded, that the administration of justice should 
no longer be conducted by the consuls ; and that the laws 
should be written, and published, that the people might 
compare them with judgments. Such confusion ensued, 
that it was again necessary to resort to a Dictator. The 
choice fell on Quinctius Cincinnatus. The messengers 
sent to announce his new dignity, found him in his field, 



144 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

ploughing. He restored order, reinstated the govern- 
ment, and returned to his plough.* He was a second 
time called to the same office. In sixteen days he resto- 
red order at Rome, and compelled the iEqui, and the 
Volsci, to pass under 'the yoke,'t and again retired. 
Cincinnatus is supposed to have resigned his second dic- 
tatorship, in the year of the world 3547, or about 457 
B. C. 

§ 275. The next great change in Roman aifairs, was 
the appointment of decemvirs to form a new code of laws. 
A copy of those of Solon was sent for, to Athens. Su- 
preme power was given to these magistrates. A most 
afflictive tyranny ensued, conducted principally by a per- 
son named Appius. Among the romantic stories of this 
time, is the death of Virginia, by the hand of her own 
father, in the presence of Appius, while seated on the 
tribunal in the character of judge. Appius had conceiv- 
ed a passion for this daughter of Virginius, and was sit- 
ting as magistrate to condemn her to one Claudius, a 
creature of his own, whom he had instructed to claim her 
as a slave. The act of Virginius was to save his child 
from Appius. The sensitive Romans then abolished the 
decemvirs, whose power had continued about nine years. 

^ 276. The events of revolutionary factions, in tumul- 
tuous Rome, may be imagined, from the foregoing events. 
It so continued, for sixty years. About 387 B. C, the 
Gauls, or barbarians, from the regions north of Ita- 
ly, made their appearance at Rome, under Brennus, 
who was asked by the Romans by what right he came ? 
He answered, ' My right I carry at the point of my 
sword. All things belong to the brave.' The Romans, 
being unable to resist, deserted the city. The senators 
alone remained. Dressed in their official robes, they 
awaited the Gauls in the senate chamber. Their dress, 
their majesty, their silence, caused them to appear to the 
Gauls as so many gods. A Gaul, who dared to touch 
the beard of Marcus Papirius, was struck by him on the 

* The officers of the revolutionary war formed a society, on their 
retiring to private life, the name of which is borrowed from this Ro- 
man Cincinnatus. 

t The yoke was made by sticking two javelins in the ground, 
which supported two others, the points of which crossed. It was 
through this that the vanquished passed. 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 145 

head with his ivory rod. The charm was thus broken, 
and a massacre of the senators followed, from which no 
one of this dignified assembly escaped. 

§ 277. Who was present and survived, to give the his- 
tory of this remarkable event, except the Gauls them- 
selves, there is no account. How the Gauls knew the 
name of the senator whose beard was dishonoured by a 
barbarian's touch, (if they are the source of history on 
this occasion,) is not disclosed. Rome was now reduced 
to a heap of ashes, except the capitol, or citadel, which 
was situated on a rocky eminence. A portion of the 
Roman soldiery had shut themselves up in this place, 
under the command of one named Manlius. In the si- 
lence of night, the Gauls had climbed up the steep sides 
of this fortress, and were on the very point of taking it, 
as the Romans within, not supposing such an enterprise 
practicable, were asleep. There was no watch but the 
geese, and these proved to be faithful. They gave the 
alarm in season, and Manlius rushing to the wall, pre- 
cipitated the assailants to its base. Geese were after- 
wards held sacred by the Romans ; but the dogs in the 
capitol, who had honestly followed the example of their 
masters, were ever after held to be infamous. 

§278. Meanwhile a young Roman named Camillus, 
who was then an exile from Rome, gathered the scatter- 
ed citizens, and soon drew around the city, a force suf- 
ficient to shut up, and besiege the Gauls, who were be- 
sieging Manlius and his forces, in the capitol. Both 
the besieged parties finding their condition to be grow- 
ing troublesome from the want of provisions, entered 
into a treaty, by which the Gauls were to retire from 
Rome, and from Italy, on receiving 1000 pounds weight 
of gold. The Gauls furnished the scales ; and while the 
process of weighing was going on, a Roman named Sul- 
pitius, complained that the scales were unjust, and that 
they gave an undue advantage to the Gauls. Where- 
upon Brennus, their chief, threw his sword among the 
weights in the scale, and demanded that the gold should 
balance that also. At this moment, Camillus, who had 
found his way into the city, came among the parties who 
were thus engaged, and ordered the gold to be taken 
from the scales, and carried back to the capitol ; and 
addressing Brennus, 'Rome,' said he, 'is to be redeem- 
13 



146 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

ed by iron, not by gold.' Both parties immediately pre- 
pared for conflict ; a desperate battle ensued in which 
the Gauls were mostly destroyed, and the remaining 
few chased out of Italy. 

§ 279. Camillus rose to high honours among the Ro- 
mans. In the wars which were carried on against the 
surrounding nations, he was the successful party in 
many hard fought battles. It was already a part of Ro- 
man policy to subdue the tribes which then peopled Ita- 
ly, and reduce them to slavery ; or, to force them to ac- 
knowledge themselves to be allies of the Romans, and 
obliged to aid in their wars ; a condition which proved 
to be little preferable to slavery. Camillus gained one 
victory in an easier mode than by fighting for it. While 
he was besieging the city of the Falerii, (about 15 miles 
north of Rome,) a schoolmaster who had children of 
the besieged under his care, took them outside the walls 
for air and exercise. Thinking to recommend himself 
to Camillus, he conducted these children to the Roman 
camp, and gave them up as prisoners. But Camillus 
ordered the schoolmaster's hands to be tied behind him ; 
and then furnished each boy with a rod, and told them 
to whip their master back to their parents. The grate- 
ful Falerii immediately surrendered to the Romans, and 
were allowed the honour of being ranked as allies. 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 147 



CHAPTER XXL 

From the rebuilding of the city after its destruction by the Gauls, in 
391 B. C, to conquest of the whole of Italy by the Romans in 
264 B. C. 

§ 280. The battles which occurred in these one hun- 
dred and twenty-seven years, are described through ma- 
ny pages in historical books. The Romans were some- 
times beaten, and sustained the loss of great numbers of 
their citizens, and of some distinguished military chiefs. 
At the end of this lapse of time, they had made them- 
selves masters of the whole of the peninsula of Italy. 
The most severe conflicts occurred in these one hundred 
and twenty-seven years, with the Samnites, a nation who 
inhabited the territory eastwardly of the ridge of the Ap- 
penines, and extending to the sea ; and with the Cam- 
panians, southwardly of Rome towards Naples ; and with 
the inhabitants of the city of Tarentum, at the southern 
end of Italj. It cost the Romans sixty years of hard 
warfare to conquer the Samnites. The affair of the 
' Caudine forks ' occurred in this war. A Roman army 
had been led by the treachery of a guide into a place 
in the mountains, which was accessible by a narrow 
pass at each extremity. When the army came to the 
space through which they were to leave this valley in the 
mountains, they found it blocked up and guarded so that 
it was impassable. Returning to the place of entrance 
they found that also, blocked and guarded in like man- 
ner. The whole army was thus at the mercy of the 
Samnites. An aged chief among this people was seint 
to for an opinion as to the most expedient measures to 
be then taken. He advised that the Romans should all 
be put to death where they were, or treated with the ut- 
most generosity and allowed to depart. Neither meas- 
ure was adopted, but the Romans were required to pass 
out of their bondage under ' the yoke,' stript of their 
arms, baggage, and garments, and subjected to the de- 
rision of their captors. It may well be anticipated, that 



148 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

such treatment of Romans was afterwards retaliated with 
sufferings which they well knew how to inflict. 

§ 28L The only other warlike movement which may 
be worth noticing, in this lapse of time> is that with the 
Romans and Pyrrhus. The people of Tarentum were 
the last to be subdued on the south-eastern part of Italy. 
Knowing that they could not resist the Romans, they 
applied to Pyrrhus, then king of Epirus, on the opposite 
coast of Greece. This person had acquired great re- 
nown as a warrior in the wars of the east, and was one 
of those profitable adventurers to historians who deal ex- 
tensively in the details of war. He considered himself a 
second Alexander ; and was like him a bold and restless 
military leader, but not like him, successful. 

^ 282. He was gratified by an invitation to measure 
his generalship with the Romans. While deliberating 
on this proposal, his counsellor, Cineas, who had been a 
pupil of Demosthenes, a scholar and sensible man, asked 
jPyrrhus how he could benefit himself by a conflict with 
the Romans. Pyrrhus answered, ' I shall take Rome it- 
self.' ' And what then V ' Then we will conquer Sicily.' 
*And what next?' 'We will pass over into Africa.' 
' And what next V ' Then,' said Pyrrhus, ' we will sit down 
and enjoy ourselves.' 'And what prevents your doing 
that now ]' said Cineas. This could not be done, by 
Pyrrhus. He went over to Italy with a large force, and 
spent six years in fighting with the Romans. 

§ 283. The Romans sent ambassadors to Pyrrhus, and 
among them Fabricius. This person appears to be such 
a one as is meant when ' a Roman ' is spoken of, in re- 
ference to severe virtue. Fabricius was a poor man, 
and Pyrrhus attempted in vain to corrupt him vi'ith mo- 
ney. As the Romans were at this time ignorant of ele- 
phants, as part of the machinery of an army, Pyrrhus 
placed one behind a screen in his tent, and while Fabri- 
cius sat there conversing, the screen was suddenly with- 
drawn, and the elephant moved his proboscis around the 
head of Fabricius. But the elephant and the gold were 
alike incompetent to move him. Soon after, the physi- 
cian of Pyrrhus offered to Fabricius to poison Pyrrhus, 
if he could be suitably rewarded. Fabricius informed 
Pyrrhus of this offer, in a dignified letter ; and afterwards 
received, as a present, a chair, the seat of which was cov- 
ered with the physician's skin. 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 149 

^ 284. The Romans, unaccustomed to contend against 
elephants, were, at first, severely beaten ; but in the end 
they were such apt scholars in adopting all improvements 
in discipline, which they saw their foes practise, that 
20,000 of them vanquished 80,000 of the troops of Pyr- 
rhus. He was compelled to return to Epirus, with the 
remnant, and abandon the contest. After engaging in 
other wars, he at last took part against the Spartans ; 
and failing to conquer their city, entered that of Argos. 
In a street battle in this place, a woman, seeing from a 
house top that Pyrrhus was in the act of slaying her son, 
threw a tile upon him, and killed him. This occurred 
272 years B. C. This short sketch of wars sufficiently 
shows the character of the times in this respect, and the 
motives which led to any one battle, and the conduct 
of it on both sides, show what all controversies of this 
nature must have been. 

§ 285. The military movements of these one hundred 
and twenty-seven years, having given the Romans the 
absolute possession of all Italy, we will advert to such 
events in Rome, as may be worth noticing in this space 
of time. If there be any thing in Roman history which 
is peculiarly instructive to American citizens, it is to be 
found in the one hundred and twenty-seven years which 
we are now considering, and in the next two hundred 
and twenty years ; at the end of which the whole of the 
known world except India and China, and the territories 
of barbarous nations, was subjected to a Roman mon- 
arch. 

§ 286. Returning to the time when Camillus expelled 
the Gauls, (about 390 B. C.,) the Romans employed 
themselves, though still engaged in war, in re-building 
their city. It is a clear indication of the feelings of sur- 
rounding people, that they seized on the moment of hu- 
miliation, to break from their relation of conquered, or 
dependant communities. It however proved, that Rome 
always re-appeared still more powerful after every de- 
feat. Rome rose from its ashes less splendid, less regu- 
lar, and without regard to the course of the drains, (said 
to have been large enough for a cart-load of hay to move 
in,) second only to the great roads, and aqueducts, which 
no modern nation has attempted to equal. No city was 
13* 



150 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

/ 
ever supplied, before or since, with water so excellent 
and so abundant. 

§ 287. From the re-building of Rome to the fall of the 
empire, history assumes a more defined character. Fa- 
ble loses its importance, and one begins to trace in Ro- 
man events, the reality of human motives. Ambition, 
envy, selfishness, and the thirst for distinction, are plainly 
seen in the common occurrences. The means of gratify- 
ing these impulses were there, and diligently used. Then, 
as now, such motives to action were prolific in sorrow 
to those who felt them. But the mournful aspect of these 
times, is sometimes relieved by the splendour of virtue, 
in some individuals ; and that which seems to distinguish 
Romans from other people, is, that individual cravings 
were forgotten, and lost, in the devotion to the glory 
of Rome. As to instances of patriotism, and individual 
worth of character, Camillus was an illustrious example. 
Wise, forbearing, brave, magnanimous, he seemed to live 
only to be great and useful. In the second allusion to 
Roman character, whatever may have been the bitter 
contentions at home, all could unite to defend, or con- 
quer, as to all the rest of mankind. 

§ 288. Soon after Rome was rebuilt, these seem to 
have been the divisions among its inhabitants : 1. The 
noble or patrician rank, deriving their distinction from 
early times ; rich and arrogant, and claiming of right, 
the senatorial and consular dignity, the administration 
of justice, arid the command of the armies. 2. The ple- 
beians, who were in general poor, dependant, and debt- 
ors to the rich. The latter had ceased to acquiesce in 
the distinctions of the former. Some of the plebeians 
had become rich, and some patrician families poor, and 
some had become connected by marriage with plebeians. 
There was a multitude who were called the people. 
They had not regular vocations, and daily industry, for 
the slaves were the artificers and labourers. This loung- 
ing multitude gathered in the temples, and other places 
of public resort, to hear, and to talk, of what Romans 
had done, were doing, and intended to do. For this mul- 
titude were, in fact, the sovereigns of Rome. To them 
was the final appeal from all acts of the senate, and of the 
consuls, excepting only, when their own turbulence and 
sedition demanded the tyranny of a Dictator. 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 151 

^ 289. There could be no more profitable field for the 
selfish, the envious, the malicious, and the aspiring, than 
Rome. Disappointed patricians courted the people, de- 
fined their claims, and led them to seek their accom- 
plishment. The patricians possessed the conquered lands 
by usage. The laws of debtor and creditor were severe. 
The people were often dependant on supplies from the 
public granaries. Hence we see ambitious patricians 
courting the people, and insisting for them, on equal di- 
vision of spoils, feeding the multitude, demanding aboli- 
tion of debtor laws, and equal rights for them with the 
exalted. Hence also are seen plebeians who had grown 
rich, demanding to be senators, consuls, and chiefs of the 
military force. Patrician females, who had married into 
the lower class, were restless, and indignant, that their 
husbands were excluded from office. These fermenting 
elements convulsed Rome, arrested the course of gov- 
ernment, and produced anarchy and confusion. Popular 
leaders vi^ere sometimes the victims of their own plots. 

§ 290. In this state of affairs even the dictatorship 
of Camillus was unavailing, and he besought the senate 
to agree that one of the consuls should be chosen from 
the plebeians. They reluctantly assented. Other com- 
promises followed, a new order of officers arose. Here 
begins the amalgamation of ranks, which in a course 
of years blended ^11 popular distinctions. Tranquillity 
was restored, and Rome was again at leisure to attend 
to her favourite employment, that of extending her em- 
pire. The virtuous Camillus built, as he had vowed to 
do, his temple to Concord. He closed his good and hon- 
ourable life in his eighty-second year, not as one would 
wish that Camillus should die, but as one of the victims 
of pestilence that visited Rome, (B. C. 365.) 

§ 291. It is a curious fact, that during all these times 
the Romans were under the most absurd superstitions. 
They could enter on no serious employment without first 
inspecting the entrails of beasts, watching the number 
and flight of birds, and relying on the appetite of their 
chickens for food. Soothsaying, and constructions of the 
sybilline leaves, were often decisive in the most serious 
aflfairs. Thus it is gravely related, that a certain battle 
could not be gained, unless one of the consuls devoted 
himself to death. Accordingly, one of them threw away 



152 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

his arms, dressed himself in pontifical robes, mounted 
his horse, and rushed bare-headed among the enemy. 
Victory to the Romans, was the certain consequence, 
but from very natural causes. In another case : a great 
chasm in the ground, within the Forum, was opened by 
some supernatural agency. All attempts to fill it up were 
abortive. The augurs pronounced that it never could 
be closed until the most precious things in Rome were 
thrown into it. A distinguished Roman, called Curtius, 
put on his armour, mounted his horse, and declaring that 
nothing was more precious than patriotism and military 
virtue, plunged into the gulf and was seen no more. No 
one can doubt that the chasm was immediately closed, 
and so historians gravely say it was. This story gives 
some data on which to calculate the value of anciei^t 
annals. 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 153 



CHAPTER XXIL 

The three wars between Rome and Carthage, usually called the 
Punic wars, and the conquests of Rome from 264 to 147 B. C. 

§ 292. The victories of the Romans had brought them 
to the shores on all the parts of Italy which the sea visits. 
There was no more for them to conquer but the barba- 
rians in the north, unless they sought new conquests be- 
yond their shores. Hitherto, their riches were mostly 
derived from the soil. They had no ships ; no commerce. 
They were strangers to maritime warfare. The nearest 
land to them was the rich and extensive island of Sicily, 
situated south-west wardly of the extreme south-west point 
of Italy, and separated from this, by the straits of Mes- 
sina, of different widths, the narrowest not more than 
three miles. Sicily was, at this time, partly possessed by 
ancient Grecian colonies, and partly by a people whom 
we have not had occasion hitherto to mention. 

§ 293. Carthage was an African city, said to have 
been founded by Dido, who was the daughter of Belus, 
king of Tyre, and the wife of Sichaeus, her uncle, a priest 
of Hercules. Pygmalion, the successor of Belus, mur- 
dered this priest, to obtain his immense riches. Dido 
fled, and went to Africa, 869 B. C, and there built this 
famous city. Virgil is charged with an error as to time, 
in supposing ^neas to have found Dido in Carthage im- 
mediately after the fall of Troy, which must have been 
three hundred years earlier. But one would reluctantly 
disturb the charming story of the absorbing, but tragic 
passion of Dido for the Trojan fugitive. Carthage, un- 
der the effects of enriching commerce, had become a 
splendid city, at the time (264 B. C.) when Rome was 
compelled to look beyond her own shores, for new scenes 
of glory. This city was situated on the northern coast 
of Africa, (near the present city of Tunis,) about twelve 
hundred miles a little to the north of west from Alexan- 
dria ; eight hundred miles east of the straits of Gibraltar ; 
one hundred and twenty miles south-west of Sicily ; three 



154 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

hundred and twenty miles nearly south from Rome, 
across the Mediterranean. The kingdom of Numidia 
was westwardly of Carthage, and that of Mauretania west 
of that. The present city of Algiers was near the parti- 
tion line between these two kingdoms. The walls of Car- 
thage were twenty-four miles in extent ; the walls which 
extended from the city to the port, were twenty-one 
miles in length. 

<§ 294. The Romans wanted Sicily, because it was rich 
in fruits, corn, and wine. They were never at a loss for 
a cause of war. Part of Sicily was held by king Hiero, 
at this time. His chief city was Syracuse. The Romans 
made a league with Hiero, to expel the Carthaginians 
from the island ; and then declared war, on the pretence 
that they favoured Pyrrhus, while he was in Italy. As 
this new enemy depended on its fleets, and Rome had 
no ships, they took a Carthaginian vessel, that a storm 
had cast ashore, for a model, and soon built a hundred. 
While their ships were building, they exercised their 
soldiers with oars on land, so placed as to be used in like 
manner as in ships. Duilius, who commanded the first 
Roman fleet, knowing the superiority of his enemy in 
naval management, and their inferiority in the familiar 
modes of warfare on land, invented a sort of platform, 
which could be thrown over from a Roman vessel, so as 
to grapple a vessel of the Carthaginians, and thus reduce 
the contest to a mere land battle. In his first essay, he 
gained a victory, which so elated the Romans, that they 
gave him a triumph, and ordered that a band of music 
should attend him whenever he went out to sup. 

•§ 295. The Romans sent Manlius and Regulus, with a 
fleet of 140,000 men, to carry on the war in Africa. The 
fleet of Carthage was destroyed. Manlius was ordered 
to return to Sicily, and Regulus to land in Africa. He 
approached Carthage triumphantly. Carthage was in 
despair, and sent to Sparta for a general. Xantippus 
came. A battle ensued, Regulus w^as defeated, and tak- 
en prisoner. This Roman was one of the most distin- 
guished among the Eminent. While conducting this 
war, he asked the senate to permit him to go home, be- 
cause his slave had carried off" his farming utensils, and 
his family would suffer. His farm comprised seven acres, 
and was cultivated by his own labour. The senate refused 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 155 

his request, and directed that his family should be main- 
tained at the public expense. 

§ 296. Regulus was in a jail four years. Then Car- 
thage, and the Romans, being equally desirous of peace, 
the former sent ambassadors, and Regulus with them, 
on his promise to return, if peace were not made. He 
refused to enter Rome, or see his family. The senate, 
as was usual, received the ambassadors outside the walls. 
The conference was pacific on both sides. When Reg- 
ulus was asked his opinion, he advised to the continuance 
of the war ; and his advice prevailed. No entreaties 
would induce him to see his wife and children. He re- 
turned. The Carthaginians cut off his eye-lids, and ex- 
posed him to a burning sun ; and finally enclosed him in 
a cask perforated with nails. He so died, miserably, in 
the year 251 B. C. 

§ 297. The Romans permitted his wife to torture the 
Carthaginian captives ; and this matron was so ingeni- 
ously cruel, that the senate were obliged to interpose. 
Nothing is known of the Carthaginians but through Ro- 
man history. If they are justly dealt with therein, they 
were a most ungrateful, corrupt, and perfidious people. 
They are said to have been mortified, that a Spartan 
should have saved them ; and treated him so offensively, 
that he asked to be sent home. A vessel was despatched 
with him ; but the mariners were ordered to throw him 
into the sea, with all his suite, that it might not be told in 
Greece, that Carthage was saved by a stranger If these 
things were so, one cannot feel much commiseration for 
this people, in the fate that remained for them, in their 
future contests with Rome. But it should be remember- 
ed that Romans tell the story of Carthage. 

§ 298. This war was protracted twenty-four years. 
The Romans found themselves indifferent mariners; and 
suffered great losses from the perils of the sea, and from 
ignorance of the coasts, and currents; and were success- 
ful only when they could grapple, and avail themselves 
of their accustomed mode of battle. This, their enemy 
learned to avoid. Peace, after various fortunes, was 
agreed on, with hard terms to Carthage, and with great 
gain of territory in the Mediterranean isles, and consid- 
erable tribute on the part of the Romans. At the end 
of this war, Rome was at peace with all the world ; and 



156 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

the temple of Janus was closed, for the first time since 
the building of the city, five hundred and thirteen years. 

<5 299. An inveterate enmity had grown up between 
Carthage and Rome ; and both parties were preparing 
for the display of it. Spain was, at this time, occupied 
by barbarous tribes, and some colonies. The city of Sa- 
guntum, in Spain, was under the protection of Rome. 
Carthage had a colony in Spain. Experience had taught 
Carthage, that it must prepare to resist the Romans on 
land. Spain seems to have been chosen for the place 
of its military schooling. Amilcar, of Carthage, was tiie 
military chief in Spain. He had sworn his four sons to 
eternal enmity to Rome ; among whom was Hannibal 
and Hanno. Amilcar having been assassinated, Hanni- 
bal, at the age of twenty-five, succeeded to the command. 
Meaning to provoke a war with Rome, he besieged Sa- 
guntum eight months ; and on the point of taking it, its 
inhabitants burnt it, with all its wealth, and themselves 
also. 

§ 300. This youthful general, (not then twenty-six years 
of age,) conceived and executed an enterprise, which 
has been a subject of admiration to military men, from 
that day to this. It was winter. His army was not made 
up of men who had a country of their own, to respond to 
their glorious achievements. They were a motley com- 
bination of many nations. There was no bond of union 
among them, but that wonderful charm which military 
genius can cast over multitudes. We see this in Alex- 
ander, and others who are to be mentioned. We know 
it in Napoleon. This astonishing Hannibal, who had no 
military glory running in his blood, and who had no Ho- 
mer to study, and no renowned countrymen to imitate, 
departed from Spain, to fight his way through Gaul, and 
to seek a pass-way over the Alps, with 90,000 foot, and 
12,000 horse, at the very season of the year, when win- 
ter had added all its embarrassments to difficulties in- 
surmountable, in any season, to most other men. The 
fables which are told, in history, of heating granite pre- 
cipices with fallen forests, and rending rocks with vin- 
egar, are unworthy of the conception and execution 
of Hannibal's exploits. He found his way, by daring 
efforts, and military tact, but at severe cost, since he 
numbered but 20,000 of his 90,000 foot, and but 6,000 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. I57 

of his 12,000 horse, when he reached the plains of Italy. 
Personally, it was a costly effort ; for, either in his ex- 
posure on the Alps, or soon after, he was bereft of one 
of his eyes, by disease. 

§ SOL His presence in Italy seemed to confound the 
Romans. They had just before numbered the men in 
Italy who were capable of bearing arms, and they were 
found to be nearly 800,000. This enumeration was pre- 
paratory to repelling the Gauls, a common cause to all 
Italians. It seemed to be otherwise in repelling this un- 
expected visitor. Rome seems to have been paralyzed 
in its councils ; and Hannibal, after some well-fought 
battles, found his way to the south-eastern part of Italy, 
where the scenes of his warfare principally occurred. 
With a comparatively small band, he maintained him- 
self, without reinforcements of troops, and without the 
aid of money, from Carthage, sixteen years. In this 
space of time he displayed the ingenuity and tact in mil- 
itary science, which secure to him the first rank among 
all the warriors that are known in history. 

§ 302. In 217 B. C, the battle of Thrasymene was 
fought, in which Hannibal was eminently victorious. His 
greatest battle was that of Cannae, fought on the twenty- 
first of May, 216 B. C. Cannse was a village south- 
eastwardly of Rome, about two hundred miles, and near 
the north-eastern shore of Italy. Hannibal is supposed 
to have increased his army to 40,000 foot, and 10,000 
horse. — If so, probably from among the disaffected to 
Rome. In this battle, he is stated to have slain 40,000 
of the Romans, and one of the two consuls, who com- 
manded them. There were counted among the slain, 
5630 Roman knights, from whom were taken three pecks 
of gold rings, which were sent, among the trophies, to 
Carthage. This profusion of golden ornaments, seems 
to be inconsistent with the humble poverty of Regulus. 

§ 303. Hannibal has been blamed, and defended, on 
the point that he ought, immediately after this battle, to 
have forced his way into Rome. He only approached 
within a few miles of it ; and after hovering around it for 
a time, retired to Capua, in Campania, where he took 
up his winter abode, about twelve miles north of Naples. 
Capua was the ancient city of Vulturnum. It was called 
another Rome. Its population 800,000 ; its amphithea- 
14 



158 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

tre capable of containing 100,000. It is situated in a 
beautiful region, and its inhabitants were familiar with 
the most luxurious indulgence. One winter of repose 
and pleasure, enfeebled the warriors of Hannibal. The 
first general of all the ages of the world, was never again 
a conqueror. He returned to an ungrateful country ; 
was a fugitive, a suppliant, and died by his own hand. 

^ 304. The Romans, notwithstanding these defeats, 
sent an army against the city of Syracuse, in Sicily, the 
year after the battle of Cannae, under the command of 
Marcellus. Sicily is nearly in the form of a triangle, one 
side of which is towards the east. On this side, and 
south of the middle of it, was Syracuse, a city anciently 
founded by a Greek colony from Corinth. At this time, 
215 B. C, it was rich, populous, and well fortified. Here 
dwelt, at that time, the celebrated Archimedes. The 
walls of the city were on the edge of the sea, so that the 
Roman galleys could come close to them. Archimedes 
invented some sort of machinery, of such astonishing 
power, that it could be used from the walls, and so appli- 
ed as to grapple a Roman galley, lift it in the air, and 
dash it against the rocks. He invented, also, other ma- 
chinery, by which stones of enormous size were sent, a 
long distance, among the ranks of the Romans ; and also 
the means of concentrating the rays of the sun upon the 
Roman fleet, so as to set it on fire. In 212 B. C, Syra- 
cuse was taken, and a common soldier killed this eminent 
man, not knowing who he was. The knowledge of these 
inventions perished with him, and it is not even conjec- 
tured what they were. 

§ 305. It was the common policy of Rome, when in- 
vaded in its own territories, to send the war into the 
country of its enemy. The young Publius Cornelius Sci- 
pio, who had won the highest honours in Spain, was en- 
trusted with the command of the forces. His appearance 
in Africa, terrified Carthage, and occasioned the recall 
of Hannibal, who left Italy (which he had so nearly mas- 
tered, and where he had many sad recollections to 
avenge,) with tearful sorrow. He discerned the condi- 
tion of Carthage, and its incompetency to contend with 
the Romans. The only resource seemed to be negocia- 
tion ; and he sought an interview with Scipio. 

§ 306. The two first generals of that age, or perhaps 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. I59 

of any other, well known to each other by fame, but per- 
sonally unknown, met, to try their skill, not in arms, but 
in treaty. Scipio had lost his father, and his uncle, and 
Hannibal his father, his uncle, and two brothers, in the 
Wars of Rome and Carthage. Two such men must have 
beheld each other, and especially on this occasion, with 
intense interest. Historians have made fine speeches 
for these two generals, at this interview, knowing no 
more, probably, of the words they used, than would be 
known, at this day, if none had been reported. Titus 
Livius, whose works are the principal sources of this his- 
tory, had as much claim to be a dramatist, and a novelist, 
as a narrator of facts. 

^ 307. Hannibal and Scipio parted as they met, ene- 
mies who must settle their pretensions in the field. The 
battle of Zama, (about ninety miles southwest of Car- 
thage,) fought in 202 B. C, between these chiefs, termi- 
nated in the total overthrow of the Carthaginian forces, 
and Hannibal escaped with difficulty. This victory was 
followed by a humiliating peace, the terms of which were 
dictated by Scipio. The conditions were many, and 
collectively may be said to have terminated the sovereign- 
ty of Carthage. A large sum of money, and immediate 
payment, was one of the conditions. When this pay- 
ment was made, some of the senators were affected, even 
to tears. But Hannibal (who considered himself ill used 
while in Italy, by his own country,) was seen to smile. 
' Being questioned on this insult to the public distress, he 
answered : a smile of scorn for those who felt not the 
loss of their country, until it affected their own interest, 
was an expression of sorrow for Carthage.' — Scipio re- 
turned to Rome, and received from the senate the sur- 
name of Africanus. 

§ 308. While this second war with Carthage was going 
on, in the south, the Romans were not inattentive to the 
means of extending their pow er over nations in other di- 
rections. Within the next fifty years after the peace 
with Carthage, (from 202 to 150 B. C.) Rome was known, 
and felt, throughout Greece, including Macedonia, and 
even to the eastern part of Asia Minor. The whole 
of this eastern country, which had been divided, fought 
for, and possessed, by Alexander's generals and their suc- 
cessors, had been going through the common revolu- 



160 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

tions of that age. Kingdoms arose, were extended, and 
flourished ; others, consequently, were diminished, were 
conquered, or destroyed, as mihtary force, and every 
manner and grade of crime, may be supposed to have 
operated. 

^ 309. Greece and Asia Minor were a tempting field 
for Roman policy and military skill. Under various pre- 
tences, the whole of this country was treated as the pe- 
ninsula of Italy had been, before the first Punic war. 
Rome afforded protection to the weak, and aided them 
to conquer the strong ; and the weak always found, that 
in this process they had been conquered themselves. 
There were strong motives to Roman soldiery, whether 
officers, or privates, to engage in these wars. It was the 
glory of Rome that made the unity of action; it was the 
glory of the victorious chief, on his return to Rome, that 
inspired the craving for success. The spoils were not 
yet the property of the army, but of Rome. The milita- 
ry reward was, bearing the spoils in triumph, through 
the streets of Rome, to the treasury, with a long retinue 
of captives, often comprising nobles, princes, and kings. 
Scipio, who conquered Hannibal at Zama, hoped to have 
numbered Hannibal among his captives, and to have led 
him in chains to the Roman capitol. After Hannibal 
had quitted Carthage in disgust, and had visited Tyre, 
he went into the service of king Antiochus, who reigned 
around the north-east corner of the Mediterranean. The 
Romans eagerly sought him ; and he retired into the 
kingdom of Perseus, in Bithynia, on the southern side 
of the Black Sea. One of the conditions of peace, with 
this king, was, that Hannibal should be delivered up to 
Scipio. He escaped this fate, only, by taking poison, 
which this man, worthy of a better country than his own, 
and of a better age than that in which he lived, had long 
borne about his person, to await his necessities, con- 
cealed in a ring. He was supposed to have died at the 
age of seventy. In the same year died Scipio and Phi- 
lopoemen : these were the three greatest generals of that 
age. (About 188 B. C.) 

'5310. Carthage was destined to take its turn again, 
with Rome. One of the conditions of the former peace 
was, that Carthage should not make war without the con- 
sent of Rome. A. war was provoked, on the part of Nu- 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 161 

midia, where the Algerine country now is. Rome sent 
commissioners to enquire into this matter, and among 
others Cato, called the Censor. Carthage in fifty years 
of peace and commerce, had become rich, splendid, and 
luxurious. The virtuous Cato, sincerely believed that 
duty to Rome exacted the destruction of Carthage. It 
was intolerable, that a city so rich, and magnificent, 
should exist, within three or four days sail of Rome. On 
leaving Carthage, he plucked some figs from a tree, and 
entering the Senate on his arrival at Rome, and holding 
up his figs, yet fresh, told the senators, that the great 
city where this fruit grew, was no farther from Rome 
than that freshness proved it to be. This real Roman, 
concluded every speech in the Senate, whatsoever might 
be the subject, with Delenda est Carthago, (And my opin- 
ion is, that Carthage must be destroyed.) A descendant 
of this Cato, not long after, a despairing fugitive from 
Rome, and a good and great man, tore out his own bow- 
els, in a town near to Carthage, on finding that the 
wound of his own sword had failed to end his life. 

^311. A new and third war was commenced by the 
Romans, and conducted by another Scipio, (the son of a 
cousin of the two brothers of this name) who literally 
accomplished the wishes of Cato. Seeing the Cartha- 
ginians with the eyes of Roman historians, there is no- 
thing to respect in them, and one sees the justice of the 
synonyme of dishonesty, and ' punic faith.' Perceiving 
Hannibal, in like manner, one feels an emotion of sor- 
row, that such a man as Hannibal was, had not a country 
worthy of him to contend for. Yet, how uncertain are 
the means of judging. This seems to be certain, that 
however unworthy Carthage may have been, the charac- 
ter of Romans, as proved by what their own historians say 
of their conduct to Carthage, was odious and shocking. 
That magnificent city, and all its inhabitants were aban- 
doned to the brutality of Roman soldiery, until they were 
satiated, and then submitted to the flames for seventeen 
days. The scene of misery and desolation was such, 
that even Scipio, by whose order it occurred, could not 
refrain from weeping over it. It was thus destroyed 146 
B. C. It was rebuilt many years after by Romans, and 
continued some centuries. But its site can now hardly 
be traced, 

14* 



162 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 



CHAPTER XXIII. 

From the end of the third Punic war in 147 B. C. to the death of 
Sylla in 78 B. C. 

§312. We have seen the best days of Republican 
Rome. Already a sovereignty residing in the people of 
a single city, and exercised through senators and mili- 
tary chiefs, disposed of princes, kings and empires, from 
the Atlantic, to the eastern end of the Mediterranean. 
With riches, and the spoils of conquest, Rome prepared 
itself for the tyranny of the worst of passions ; for sedi- 
tions, civil wars, and despotism, which were not long in 
coming. Although the military passion was still the 
dominant one, as to all foreign nations, Rome itself be- 
gins to show the fatal consequences of its indulgence. 
There is no longer anything to respect, or to imitate in 
the proud mistress of the world ; but many things to 
commiserate and abhor. A few examples of ancient Ro- 
man virtue are seen, but they only serve to throw a 
stronger light on the general depravity. 

§ 313 From the end of the third Punic war in 147 B. 
C to the tranquillity which began in the year 30 of the 
christian era, under the government of the first emperor 
called Augustus, is 117 years. This was an eventful 
and interesting period, and well deserves a philosophical 
history for itself. It comports with the plan of this vol- 
ume to do no more than sketch the great scenes, and the 
prominent agents in them, as introductory to more ex- 
tended inquiries, by those who desire a more compre- 
hensive knowledge. 

§ 314. The first event of these times, v/as that called 
the sedition of the Gracchi, which began about the year 
145 B. C. Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, and Caius, 
his brother, were, on the paternal side, of distinguished 
family ; and on the maternal side, were grandsons of the 
elder Scipio Africanus, by his truly excellent daughter 
Cornelia. Their father died while they were young ; and 
they were left to the care of their mother, who caused 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 163 

them to receive the highest education, in eloquence, and 
in the study of Grecian pliilosophy, which was, at this 
time, much considered at Rome. Both of them were 
mihtary men, both eloquent, and the younger, Caius, 
eminently so. Their sister Sempronia, was the wife of 
the younger Scipio Africanus. At this time the distinc- 
tions of patrician and plebeian had long disappeared ; 
public officers were chosen according to the will of the 
people. The senators appear to have held a rank of no- 
bility ; and there was a limited order called equestrians, 
or knights, who seem to have held an intermediate rank 
between senators and citizens. The offices of consul, 
tribunes of the people, and some others, still continued. 
§ 315. Whether the purpose of the Gracchi was to 
arrest the growing luxuries and depravity of Rome, and 
to restore it to republican simplicity; or to gratify some 
passions, which they concealed under the pretence of pat- 
riotism, is a matter which remains in doubt. It is not 
improbable, that their motives may have been derived 
from both these sources. Their first measure was to pro- 
pose that no Roman should possess more than five hun- 
dred jugera of land, (a jugerum was a Roman acre, a 
space which could be ploughed in one day, with one 
yoke of oxen, and equal to 28,800 square feet.) They al- 
so proposed that every person who held more, should give 
up the surplus, to be divided equally between his chil- 
dren, and those citizens who had no land. It is readily 
perceived how fruitful a source of contention this must 
have been, at a time when the tenure of estates had not 
been disturbed by any similar proposition for nearly 
250 years. The rich opposed, and the poor were crav- 
ing. Civil commotion arose, and continued nearly twen- 
ty years, in the course of which time, many lives were 
sacrificed in tumults, and among others, both the Gracchi 
were killed. Scipio, their brother-in-law, was among 
their decided opponents ; and when he was preparing to 
take effective measures to restore tranquillity, he was found 
dead in his bed, with marks upon him which showed that 
he had been strangled. His wife Sempronia, was 
thought not to be guiltless of this crime. This Scipio 
was among the last of ' the Romans.' All historians 
concur in ranking him among the most dignified of men. 



164 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

They make him the equal, if not the superior of the elder 
Scipio. They ascribe to him courage and humanity ; 
exalted talents, with equal magnanimity ; patriotism, 
guided by wisdom and foresight ; and to these high quali- 
ties they add moderation, benevolence, and incorruptible 
integrity. It is some indication, how Rome had fallen, 
that such a man should have been strangled, in his own 
house, without exciting a general indignation. Scipio so 
died at the age of 56. (128 B. C.) 

§ 316. During these contentions, Rome was still pros- 
ecuting her foreign wars on both sides of the Mediterra- 
nean ; on the north, from the Atlantic to its eastern end ; 
and on the south, with the Numidian princes, Jugurtha, 
and Massinissa, westwardly of Carthage. Of the Jugur- 
thine war, there is an elegant history by Sallust, which is 
one of the books familiarly known in classic erudition. 
But, in this war, one finds no new trait in Roman char- 
acter. Jugurtha ventured to Rome to sue for clemency, 
but without success. On retiring he looked back upon 
it ; ' Oh ! Rome ! ' said he, ' how readily wouldst thou 
sell thyself, if any man were rich enough to be the pur- 
chaser ! ' 

§ 317. Some extraordinary men now make their ap- 
pearance in the affairs of Rome. Whether they control- 
led events, or events made them, may be a point not eas- 
ily decided. Among these men were Caius Marius, born 
156 years B. C. Lucius Cornelius Sylla, born 137 ; 
Marcus Licinius Crassus, born 131 ; Cneus Pompey, 
born 106 ; Caius Julius Caesar, 100 ; Marcus Fortius Ca- 
to, 95; Marcus Amelius Lepidus, 81 B. C. Marius was 
the son of poor parents, and born in a village distant 
from Rome. He was of uncommon stature, great bodily 
strength, undaunted courage, rude manners, and fright- 
ful countenance. His soul seemed to be devoted to two 
passions, ambition and revenge. A rapid rise through 
ail the grades of military life, to be tribune of the people, 
is some evidence of popular talents ; and it is some evi- 
dence of audacity that he openly reproached the senate for 
their venality and corruption. He went against Jugur- 
tha in Numidia, second in command under the consul 
Metellus. He managed to supersede this consul, and 
soon conquered the Numidian prince, and his ally and 
father-in-law, Bocchus, king of Mauretania, He next 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 165 

distinguished himself in repelHng an invasion of the bar- 
barians from the north, destroying 200,000 of them. The 
wives of these invaders fought by the sides of their hus- 
bands, and when vanquished, slew their children, and 
killed themselves. 

§ 318. Marius found himself in the difficult position of 
secret contriver of a popular commotion, which it was 
his official duty as consul to suppress. His management 
occasioned tlie restoration of Metellus to the consulship, 
and Marius left Rome in disgust, in the hope of kindling 
some new war at a distance. For this purpose he went 
to the court of Mithridates, king of Pontus, who reigned 
in a territory between the north-eastern corner of the 
Mediterranean, and the south side of the Black Sea. 
This able king contended against the Romans forty 
years. 

^ 319. Marius was hurried back to Rome to take com- 
mand, jointly with Sylla, to suppress a formidable insur- 
rection of some inhabitants of Italy, who had been prom- 
ised the rank of Roman citizens, but who had not obtain- 
ed it. This was called the social war, and 300,000 of the 
flower of Italy fell in the course of it. This war being 
ended, that as^ainst Mithridates was undertaken with new 
vigour. Marius sought the command, bvit Sylla obtain- 
ed it. 

<5> 320. Sylla was of illustrious family ; a person, in all 
respects the opposite of Marius, but in courage and am- 
bition ; and consequently an elegant and accomplished 
man. Marius contrived to get a law made, that the 
command should be taken from Sylla, and given to him. 
The officers sent by Marius to take command, in his 
name, were put to death. Marius then fell upon Sylla's 
friends in Rome, and put them to death. Sylla soon ap- 
peared at Rome, with his army, and entering the city, 
sword in hand, put Marius to flight, and obtained a de- 
cree, that he was the enemy of his country, and that it 
should be deemed lawful for any one to kill him. Sylla 
then departed to carry on the war against Mithri- 
dates. 

^ 321. Marius, who was now nearly seventy years of 
age, became a miserable fugitive. At one time this Ro- 
man, who had gained many splendid victories, and who 
had been six times consul, was unable to find even a hid- 



166 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

ing place, and was near perishing from hunger. After 
many perils, he endeavoured to secrete himself in a marsh, 
sometimes up to his waist in water. In this marsh he 
was discovered, and led, with a rope around his neck, to 
the neighbouring town of Minturnee, and there imprison- 
ed. It could hardly be imagined, that one who had sunk 
so low as Marius, could, in any of the vicissitudes of for- 
tune, be again master of Rome ; yet such he was destin- 
ed to be. While in prison here, a slave was sent to dis- 
patch him. On entering the cell, armed with a dagger, 
the eyes of Marius flashed upon the assassin, and with 
a voice of thunder, ' Stop ! wretch ! ' he exclaimed, 'wilt 
thou dare to kill Caius Marius 1 ' The dagger dropped 
from the assassin's hand, and he hurried from the sight 
of this terrible man. The magistrates interpreted this to 
be the interposition of the gods, and set him once more 
at liberty; and even furnished him with a vessel to facili- 
tate his escape. He approached the shores of Africa, 
hoping to find an asylum there ; and entered the port of 
Carthage. Sextilius, then praetor in Africa, hearing of 
his arrival, sent an order to him to depart. While the 
messenger waited for an answer, Marius still remaining 
silent with his eyes fixed on the ground, was asked, what 
answer should be carried to the prsetor. ' Tell him,' said 
the desponding exile, ' that you have seen Caius Marius, 
banished from his country, sitting on the ruins of Car- 
thage.' So hopeless and helpless was his condition, that 
he passed a whole winter, in his vessel, afraid to land any 
where. 

§ 322. Meanwhile, Lucius Cornelius Cinna, a sanguin- 
ary partisan of Marius, though of the illustrious Corne- 
lian race, had raised himself into popular favour, and se- 
cured to himself the command of Rome. Marius, hearing 
of this turn in affkirs, landed in Italy, and proceeded to 
Rome, gathering an army as he went, composed of 
exiles, fugitives, and desperadoes, as wicked and re- 
vengeful as himself. Cinna conferred upon him the title 
of pro-consul, and in this character he entered Rome, 
with a host of desperate and rapacious followers. The 
city was entirely submitted to the indulgence of the worst 
passions that can find a place in the heart of man, for 
five successive days. The confusion and terror arose to 
such height, that Cinna, and a remarkable general named 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 167 

Sertorius, gathered a competent force, and surrounded 
the quarters of these assassins, in the night time, and put 
them al] to death. 

§ 323. Marius was now at leisure to avenge the mise- 
ries of his long exile, and satiate his appetite for blood ; 
nor was he satisfied, while a human being remained alive, 
whom he regarded as an enemy. Then, as though ex- 
hausted by the labours of destruction, he sunk in death 
himself, under the infirmities of old age, disease, and in- 
temperance. His fellow labourer, Cinna, while engaged 
in organizing an army to go and supersede Sylla, (who 
was still engaged in the war with Mithridates) occasion- 
ed a sedition among his soldiers by some acts of severity, 
and in attempting to put this down, he was assassinated. 

§324. The opponents of Sylla having gained the gov- 
ernment of Rome, he made peace in the East, and has- 
tened back with his favourite and devoted legions. An 
army had been raised to meet him. Sylla drew up his 
army near that of his adversaries, and proposed a delay 
to confer and compromise, which was accepted. As the 
two armies had, then, free intercourse, he directed the 
soldiers of his own, to display to those of the other, 
the spoils which they had won, in their warfare in the 
East ; and by what means they could, to induce their op- 
ponents to desert, and join the standard of Sylla. This 
ingenuity was very serviceable to Sylla, and so greatly re-^ 
duced the number of his adversaries, that in the battle 
which shortly ensued, he was victorious, and entered 
Rome in the character of conqueror. It was now his 
turn to deluge the streets of Rome with blood. 

^ 325. Eight thousand persons, and among them many 
distinguished ones, had surrendered themselves to his 
clemency. He ordered them to be shut up in the circus. 
Having assembled the senate in the temple of Bellona, 
near the circus, he rose to give them an account of his 
exploits in the East. While he was speaking with the 
utmost composure, the senate were startled with the 
shrieks of those prisoners in the circus, whom he had or- 
dered to be massacred. Perceiving their emotion, ' Re- 
gard it not, fathers ! ' said he, ' it is only a few rebels who 
are punished by my orders.' In a short time he caused 
100,000 persons to be put to death, among whom were 



168 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

ninety senators, fifteen men of consular rank, and 1,600 
knights. He extended his atrocities throughout Italy. 
He ordered every male inhabitant of the ancient city of 
Prseneste (twenty-one miles east of Rome) to be slaughter- 
ed, because the son, and the partisans of Marius found 
an asylum there. It is related that this assassin ordered 
twelve thousand of the most respectable citizens of Prse- 
neste to be confined in one spot, and that he tranquilly 
beheld the massacre of the whole of them. 

<§326. He decreed that all who sought pardon for of- 
fences, should earn it by destroying the enemies of the 
state. This was an invitation to all perso^is to massacre 
at their pleasure. In a city v^^here the most implacable 
rivalries, jealousies, and hatreds had long been festering, 
the consequences of this invitation can be imagined* 
Assassination became a regular business, either from 
choice, or means of protection, as showing devotion to 
the cause of Sylla. A list of the proscribed was made 
out daily, and hung up in the Forum. Every person 
whose name appeared on this list, might be killed by any 
one, in any manner. The soldiers were allowed to mur- 
der any citizens, whose goods, wives, or daughters were 
desired. A son was put to torture to compel him to dis- 
close where his father was concealed. The father being 
within hearing of his son's cries, could not endure them, 
and came forth ; both were slain. A son and father were 
both proscribed. Sylla ordered them to fight, and prom- 
ised life to the survivor. The son pierced his father's 
heart, and then his own with the same sword. 

§327. If any one act of Sylla would serve better than 
another to illustrate his character, it may be that in which 
he caused an amiable and respected citizen to be put to 
death because he bore the name, and was remotely of the 
blood of Marius. This person was first scourged through 
the streets of Rome, then led beyond the Tiber, and there 
his hands and ears were cut ofi", his eyes and his tongue 
torn out, and all his bones broken. Sylla was present to 
see this work faithfully done ; and because a looker on 
dared to show some sympathy for the sufi'erer, Sylla con- 
sidered this natural emotion an offence deserving instant 
death, and ordered it to be inflicted. These are only 
examples of the many atrocities of that day. It is pain- 
ful to narrate scenes so disgraceful to human nature ; 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 169 

more painful to think, that they must be read by amiable 
and innocent young persons, to teach them what man 
may become to his fellow man ; and how far more fright- 
ful and inhuman is civil war, than any which one nation 
wages against another. 

§ 328. It deserves to be noticed here, that there were 
two young men, who appeared conspicuously in Roman 
history, in after times, Pompey and Caesar. The former 
was the partisan of Sylla, and employed, at this time, as 
praetor in Sicily. Pompey had already distinguished him- 
self in the wars of Asia Minor, and had received the hon- 
our of a triumph, and the surname of Great, from Sylla. 
But with regard to Caesar, his feelings were very differ- 
ent. He early manifested a repugnance to Caesar, and 
actually placed his name on the list of the proscribed. 
This condemnation was reluctantly withdrawn ; ' For,' . 
said Sylla, ' young as he is, I discover in him more than 
one Marius.' Perceiving how he was estimated, Caesar 
prudently retired from Rome, and went to Greece, and 
to the court of Nicomedes, then king of Bithynia. He 
afterwards joined a Roman army in that quarter, and 
there first began his military career. It is said, that one 
cause of Sylla's enmity to Caesar was that he would not 
give up his wife, and marry a step-daughter of Sylla. 

§ 329. Sylla having extirpated every one whom he 
chose to consider as an enemy, and Rome having become 
tranquil, he employed himself in arranging its govern- 
ment, and that of the republic, as it was yet called. He 
intimated to the senate, that they must choose a perpetu- 
al dictator ; it was hardly necessary to intimate whom 
they should choose. He concentrated all power in him- 
self; caused all laws to be annulled which were incon- 
venient to him, and all laws to be enacted which served 
his own purposes. He continued thus to rule, for about 
three years, when having convened the senate as for some 
extraordinary occasion, he astonished them by declaring, 
that he renounced the dictatorship; and that if any one 
was dissatisfied with his exercise of power, he was ready 
to answer him. He forthwith dismissed his official at- 
tendants, and returned to his house as a private citizen. 

§ 330. He soon after retired to a villa, near to the fa- 
mous city of Puteoli, about ten miles northwest from Na- 
15 



170 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

pies. Here he devoted himself to scenes of gross sensu- 
ality, taking little or no interest in what was doing else- 
where in the world, until he was overtaken by one of the 
most odious and afflictive of diseases. He was devoured 
alive, inside and out, by vermin, which no remedy could 
extirpate; and thus, of all the thousands and thousands 
whom he put to death, no one among them died so 
wretchedly as himself. He died at the age of sixty-two, 
78 B. C There seems to be nothing wanting in the sin- 
gular compound of this man's fortunes, (who gave himself 
the surname oi Fortunate,) but that the Romans should 
weep over his foul remains. They accordingly decreed 
to him a splendid funeral. The senate, and all public 
men attended, officially; the pontiifs and vestals chant- 
ed his elegy; — and thus voluntarily confounded all dis- 
tinction between virtue and vice, patriotism and tyranny. 
On the urn which contained his ashes, the following epi- 
taph, written by himself, was engraved : ' I am Sylla the 
Fortunate ; who, in the course of my life, have surpassed 
both friends and enemies ; the first by the good ; the lat- 
ter, by the evil I have done them.' It is said that Sylla 
was the first of the Romans, whose remains were burnt ; 
but this is uncertain. His motive is thought to have 
been, to prevent the same indignity to his own dead body, 
which he occasioned to that of Marius, in having it taken 
from the tomb, and deprived of the usual decency of the 
sepulchre, that it might be torn in fragments and scatter- 
ed by the winds. There was a peculiar meaning in this 
malice ; for the Romans believed, that the soul of an un- 
buried body, must wander a hundred years on the shores 
of the river Styx, in the infernal regions, before it could 
pass that river to the elysian fields. This belief made 
death at sea terrible to the Romans. 

<^33]. After Sylla's death, the contentions of Rome 
continued. There is one of these worth mentioning, as 
it discloses something of Roman character. Among the 
amusements in the cities of Italy, were the combats of 
gladiators. The most distinguished for personal beauty 
and strength, among the slaves, were selected and train- 
ed to the use of the sword. These persons were brought 
into an arena, or amphitheatre, and opposed in couples, 
like the present mode of fighting cocks. They were not 
always slaves. They were sometimes hired ; and it be- 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 17| 

came at last, a sort of profession. The spectators of- all 
ages and both sexes, attended, as they, at this day, go to 
see a theatrical exhibition. The spectators were the 
judges of the accomplishments and conduct of the gladi- 
ators in the battle. There were postures for all the vi- 
cissitudes of the conflict, requiring grace, and elegance 
of action. When the assembly inclined to save a fallen 
combatant, they made this known by holding uf their 
thumbs. If they chose he should die, the thumbs point- 
ed downwards. There were rules for dying, and it was 
infamous to die ungracefully. A gladiator, named Spar- 
tacus, escaped from Capua, with some companions ; and 
these were joined by others, until they numbered an army 
of 70,000 men. A servile war and many battles ensued* 
At one time, Rome itself was in danger from this hostil- 
ity. After a few years they were subdued, though not 
without many hard-fought battles. 

§ 332. It is remarkable, that during the dreadful 
scenes which have been noticed, learning, science, and 
taste, had made respectable progress in Italy. Greek 
literature was fashionable. Many young Romans went 
to Grecian cities to pursue their studies in rhetoric and 
philosophy. A fondness for the Greek drama had begun. 
Some important public improvements had been made. 
The public roads had been made better. Some elegant 
females figure in Roman history. With all this was in- 
termingled a surprising superstition ; and all the absurd- 
ities in religious 'worship, which belonged to the early 
ages. Signs, omens, and indications of the will of the 
gods, were drawn from the most trivial circumstances. 
This occasioned Cicero to notice, about the same time, a 
remark of Cato, that he wondered why the augurs did not 
laugh in each other's faces. 

§ 333. The religious belief and ceremonies of the Ro- 
mans, present a question equally applicable to all reli- 
gions which are of human invention ; that is, were the 
sacred functionaries in these mysteries, really sincere in 
what they offered to others as truths ; or only agents, 
employed to keep the multitude in the bonds of supersti- 
tion ? Whatever answer may be given to this question, 
the Romans were always religious, after their forms. So 
far as can be traced, their faith and practice was original- 



172 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

ly derived from their neighbours, the Etrurians, who were 
very skilful in omens, and all sorts of divination. Whence 
they derived it, is unknown ; but it cannot be doubted 
that it came from the East. Anciently, what is now 
Tuscany, was Etruria. The Romans selected ten or 
twelve youths to go to the priests there, to be instructed, 
and to bring thence, the knowledge on which religious 
ceremtnies were founded. Afterwards, Greek mytholo- 
gy was incorporated into the Roman religion. It seems 
to be certain that Jupiter was a Divinity, who was known 
and worshiped all around the eastern end of the Med- 
iterranean, except among the Jews, at a very early date. 
§334. Augury came from the Etrurians to Rome, and 
was constantly maintained there till Christianity prevail- 
ed. It is surprising, at this day, how such absurdities 
could have been respected, after the Romans became an 
enlightened nation. They had a college of priests, of 
whom one was chief, or supreme, under the name of Pon- 
tifex Maximus ; the whole number being about fifteen. 
They enjoyed very high privileges, but were not preclud- 
ed from holding civil or military offices ; and whatever 
might be their fortunes, in other respects, their priest- 
hood continued for life ; and there could be but one chief 
at a time. This priesthood were the depositaries of all 
the secret policy of the empire, and were appealed to by 
rulers to decide in great emergencies, what could, or 
could not be done. They, and they only could divine 
what of good or evil the future would unfold. In all this, 
there is nothing new. The same thing is seen among 
the priesthood in Egypt, the magi of Persia, and the ora- 
cles of Greece, varying in nothing but the form. 

§ 335. But that which is truly absurd is, the modes in 
which the Roman priesthood discovered what was to 
come. This they did by establishing certain rules, and 
then applying them to the matter in hand. For exam- 
ple, would it do to engage in a war, fight a battle, or as- 
semble the people to make law ? The priests settled 
such questions by sacrifices ; by the flight, chirping, or 
feeding of birds. If the victim came freely to the altar, 
fell by one stroke, and bled freely, the omens were so far 
favourable. Then his entrails were inspected. What 
were the signs of good and evil in these, is no longer 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 173 

known ; these are sacred mysteries, which perished with 
those who understood them. Another mode was this : 
a priest placed himself on an eminence, and looked to- 
wards the East; if a crow or a raven was heard to croak 
on his left hand, the omen was bad, if on his right, the 
omen was good. So, also great stress was laid on the 
number, kind, and flight of birds, while the inspection 
was going on. The security to the priest was, that what- 
soever his annunciation of the will of the gods might be, 
he was sure to be in the right, since he only knew the 
rule on which he decided. In the first Punic war an im- 
portant naval battle was lost by the impiety of the Roman 
admiral. On the eve of the Ijattle, an augur inspected 
the sacred chickens, and reported that they would not 
eat; the admiral ordered them to be thrown into the sea, 
saying, ' Then, let them drink.' As might be expected, 
(according to Roman notions,) he lost the battle. So su- 
perstitious were the Romans, that the most trifling acci- 
dents were considered as decisive indications of future 
events, in the most serious aff'airs. Thus, when Caesar 
was landing with an army in Africa, he happened to slip, 
and fall upon his face. His legions were terrified by this 
omen. Caesar, well knowing that such impression would 
be made, averted the calamity by immediately stretching 
forth his hands, and extending them on the earth, and by 
crying aloud; ' Thus, oh ! Africa! do I take possession 
of thee!' 

§ 336. Besides the college of priests, there were many 
sacred festivals, in honour of deities, conducted by sacred 
persons, male and female. The most remarkable among 
the sacred females were the vestal virgins. These were 
selected at the will of the Pontifex Maximus, from the- 
first families, when very young, and were required to de- 
vote thirty years to their duties ; ten in the initiation, ten 
in the official service, and ten in teaching noviciates. Af- 
ter this, they might marry, though it was thought dis- 
graceful to do so. They were not precluded from ap- 
pearing in public, nor even from going to the public 
shows. Among their duties was that of keeping up the 
sacred fire, throughout the year ; which was annually 
re-kindled, from the sun, in the month of March. These 
persons enjoyed the highest respect, and had exalted 
15* 



174 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

privileges. When they appeared in public, they were, 
like the consuls, preceded by an officer, called a lictor. 
They were the keepers of the sacred palladium. This 
was an image of wood, (as the fable goes) which fell 
from heaven, as a precious gift to the city of Troy. When 
iEneas fled from Troy, he brought the palladium with 
him, and his son lulus, placed it in the temple of Vesta, 
the goddess of chastity. This image was so holy, that 
even the Pontifex Maximus did not dare to look upon it. 
The security of the Roman empire was thought to depend 
upon its preservation. When civil commotions, or a 
conflagration happened, it was the solemn duty of the 
vestals, to enter the sacred recess in the temple where 
the image was kept, and with pious care to bear it to a 
place of safety. Such is the origin of the word palladi- 
um (from Pallas, a name of Minerva) now in common 
use, to signify security, protection, sanctuary, &c. The 
word ^gis, the name of Minerva's shield, is used in the 
like sense. This was also the name of Jupiter's shield. 
To show how ridiculous these high sounding mytholog- 
ical terms are, iEgis is the name of the she goat which 
suckled Jupiter in the Isle of Crete; and when the goat 
died, Jupiter took off* its skin, and made out of it a cov- 
ering for his shield. About the year 241 B. C, when 
Metellus was Pontifex Maximus, the palladium was res- 
cued by him from the flames, at the risk of his life, and 
with the loss of his sight. For this eminent service the 
people decreed to him a statue. 

§337. Such things not only show what Roman super- 
stition was, but they show also, this fact ; that the opin- 
ions and acts of one age, are transferred to following 
ages. It does not require much sagacity to discern, in 
the forms and ceremonies which have been passed down, 
from age to age, among some professors of Christianity., 
ceremonies and observances taken from the absurdities 
of Greece and Rome ; and which are as irreconcilable 
with the simplicity of the prevailing rehgion, as was the 
splendid worship in heathen temples, addressed to wood 
and metals, made into deities, by human hands. 

§ 338. Among the striking instances of the dealings 
of Time with mortals and their purposes, is that of the 
first, and present use of the Colisaeum at Rome. It 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 175 

was built about 1900 years ago, by the labour of 10,000 
Jews who were captives of Titus, to amuse 100,000 Ro- 
mans at once, with the graceful and mutual destruction 
of gladiatars ; and to show what human skill can do, in 
contention with jhe ferocity of wild beasts. And now, if 
one should enter this venerable remnant of antiquity in 
'holy week,' he might see in the centre of its vast area, 
a wooden cross, bearing an inscription, that whosoever 
kissed that sacred emblem, should be assured of pardon 
for all the sins committed during the space of two whole 
days. 



176 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 



CHAPTER XXIV. . 

From the death of Sylla, in 78 B. C, to the death of Pompey, in 

48 B. C. 

§ 339. The last years of Rome, before the reign of the 
emperors, are now to be noticed, comprising the space 
between the year 680 from the building of the city, (which 
corresponds with the year 73 B. C.) and the year 27 
B. C, when the title of Augustus Caesar was given to Oc- 
tavius ; that is, forty-seven years. There are many great, 
deeds, touching tragedies, and renowned actors, in this 
short space. That these agents and events, may be bet- 
ter understood, the characters who appear in this drama, 
should first be explained. This period deserves to be 
studied. It shows how a great and glorious republic re- 
ceived its shackles, and gave up its liberties, to a relent- 
less despotism, founded on a hireling soldiery. 

§ 340. In the year 74 B. C. there were living: 1. Caius 
Julius Ccesar, then twenty-six years of age. He had held 
all the offices of the republic, and was a most accom- 
plished soldier, and an elegant scholar. A book called 
Caesar's Commentaries, containing a history of his wars, 
is one of the most valued classics of the present day. 
His wife was Aurelia, the daughter of Cotta, of noble 
rank. 2. Cneius Pompey was then thirty-two years old. 
He had led armies through the whole extent of country, 
from the Atlantic to the east end of Asia Minor. He 
was eloquent, austere, cold, and calculating. He attach- 
ed himself to Sylla's party. He first married Anstitia; 
and reluctantly put her aside, to marry iEmylia, the 
daughter-in-law of Sylla. On her death he married Ju- 
lia, the daughter of Caesar, from policy, not affection. 
On her death he married Cornelia, the daughter of Me- 
tellus Scipio, a lady celebrated for her virtues, beauty, 
and accomplishments. 3. Marcus Portius Cato (in 74 
B. C.) was twenty-one years old. He is called the last 
of 'the Romans.' He was a scholar, a soldier, and a 
man of severe virtue. 4. Marcus Antonius, (Mark An- 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 177 

tony) of distinguished family, and military fame, after- 
wards, was twelve years old in 74 B. C. 5. Marcus 
Tullius Cicero, the orator, was then thirty-three years of 
age. 6. Marcus Licinius Crassus, surnamed the Rich, 
(and who became so from buying up the confiscated pro- 
perty during the times of Marius and Sylla,) is supposed 
to have been about fifty, in 74. He was a distinguished 
military chief; and had held all the high offices at Rome. 
7. Lucius Junius Brutus was then twenty-one. He was 
a descendant from him who expelled the Tarquins, and 
put an end to kings in Rome, about five hundred years 
before this time. He married Portia, the daughter of 
Cato. The family of Brutus always appear as the friends 
of republican government. 8. Caius Cassius was then 
thirty years old. He was an able soldier and accomplish- 
ed scholar. He married Junia, the sister of Brutus. By 
Brutus he was called the Mast of the Romans.' 

§ 341. These eight persons, who will be seen to make 
so conspicuous a figure in the forty-seven years now un- 
der consideration, died by assassination, or suicide. Oc- 
tavius, afterwards Augustus Caesar, and son of a sister 
of Julius Caesar, was not born till twelve years after 74 
B. C. The celebrated Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, who 
conquered, by her beauty, Caesar, Antony, and the elder 
son of Pompey, was born five years after 74 B. C. She 
also committed suicide. There were many other emi- 
nent persons, in this space of time, (forty-seven years,) 
but those who have been named were the prominent 
actors. 

§ 342. At the beginning of these forty-seven years, the 
factions of Rome and Italy had been suppressed. Pom- 
pey and Crassus were then the most important men. A 
rivalry grew up between them. Crassus sought favour 
with the people, by lavishing his wealth; Pompe}^ by 
proposing, and obtaining popular laws. Both had the 
command of armies, respectively attached to them per- 
sonally. Neither was willing to disband. Crassus tliought 
to gain favour by disbanding his; Pompey was obliged 
to follow his example. The Mediterranean was control- 
led by pirates. Pompey was commissioned to extirpate 
them, which he did in a short time. Lucullus then com- 
manded an army in Asia Minor, unsuccessfully, against 
Mithridates. Pompey was sent to supersede him. He 



178 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

conquered all Asia Minor, Syria, Armenia, and penetra- 
ted beyond the Euphrates. Returning, he went into the 
limits of Arabia, and thence came to Jerusalem, and 
after an obstinate siege, took Jerusalem. He went into 
the 'holy of holies' of the temple, with a mixture of au- 
dacity and apprehension, and saw what no mortal, but 
the priests of the sanctuary, had ever seen. He was so 
awed by the solemnity of this place, that he left it as he 
found it, unimpaired in its treasures. He returned to 
Rome, and entered in triumph, having in his train, as 
prisoners, the son of Tigranes, king of Armenia, and son- 
in-law of Mithridates ; a sister of Mithridates ; Aristo- 
bulus, king of Judea ; and a multitude of hostages from 
different countries which he had conquered. The money 
brought to the treasury, exceeded twenty-five millions 
of dollars. 

§ 343. While Pompey was absent, the conspiracy of 
Cataline occurred, in which Cicero so greatly distinguish- 
ed himself, by his four orations, now so well known. 
Cataline was condemned. Cicero and Cato were of opin- 
ion, that he and his associates should be put to death. 
Julius Csesar, who w^as second to no one in Rome, for 
eloquence, but Cicero, was for banishment only. The for- 
mer prevailed. Cataline escaped, and raised a small army 
of desperate men, who all fell in battle, in the very ranks 
in which they fought. Cicero received the thanks of the 
senate, and was called ' Father of his countiy.' This 
renowned orator seems to have been a person of some 
vanity, and, like some other great men, to have valued 
himself for qualities which he did not possess. He never 
failed to rehearse the exploits of his patriotism, when- 
ever he addressed the senate. He sustained several pub- 
lic offices with much credit to himself. The important 
office of questor was held by him in Sicily; and after- 
wards, that of governor of Cilicia, a province of Asia 
Minor, where he met the Parthians, and gained some 
credit as a military man. Some pretensions to a triumph 
were set up by him, but in this he was disappointed. 

§ 344. Caesar had been sent to Spain as prsetor, where 
he had gained glory and riches. Fearing that Pompey 
and Crassus might supplant him, he returned, and art- 
fully reconciled these two men, and then agreed with 
them to divide the Roman empire between themselves ; 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 179 

and that nothing should be done but by mutual consent. 
Pompey took Spain, because he could stay at Rome, and 
govern by lieutenants. Crassus took the East, because 
he could there increase his riches. Caesar took Europe 
beyond the Alps, because he could there acquire glory in 
a field all his own. Thus was composed the first trium- 
virate^ 60 years B. C. 

<^ 345. Caesar did not fear much from his son-in-law, 
Pompey, while he was absent. He made it Pompey's 
interest to sustain him. He feared nothing from Crassus, 
in his eastern wars. But he disliked to leave the tongue 
of Cicero in Rome. By a course of ingenious expe- 
dients, he procured the banishment of Cicero, to a dis- 
tance of four hundred miles from Rome, and the demo- 
lition of his house, and the sale of his goods. The ground 
taken was, that any one who had procured a citizen to 
be condemned, unheard, should be banished himself. 
Caesar pursued his conquests beyond the Alps, and even 
crossed into Great Britain, as conqueror. Pompey, vain- 
ly thinking that he was promoting his own interests in 
honouring Caesar, ordered a festival of fifteen days, in 
gratitude for his victories. 

§ 346. Pompey at length discerned that he had as- 
sisted in giving Caesar dominion which threatened his 
own. He took* the opposite course, and suppressed Cae- 
sar's letters, and spread reports unfavourable to his re- 
putation. About this time, Pompey's wife, Julia, (the 
daughter of Caesar, who had done much to preserve har- 
mony,) died ; and Crassus was dead. As he loved gold, 
it was said, that his enemies in the East, who had taken 
him captive, poured melted gold down his throat. Thus 
the empire was left to the ambition of Pompey and Cae- 
sar. Pompey, finding how rapidly Caesar was gaining 
the public affections, and how rapidly his own power 
was declining, took advantage of a sedition, which arose 
from the murder of Clodius, by Milo, and obtained a de- 
cree, that a body of troops should be at his command. 
Cicero, who had been recalled, appeared as the advocate 
of Milo, but without success. It was in allusion to these 
troops, whom Pompey had commanded to surround the 
senate, that Cicero speaks of the presence of arms, in 
one of his orations a2!:ainst Cataline. 

§ 347. It began now to be clearly perceived, that the 



180 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

powerful forces which Pompey could command in Spain 
and Italy ; and those still more powerful, which Caesar 
commanded as well on the Italian side, as beyond the 
Alps, made both Pompey and Csesar very dangerous 
citizens to the republic. Attempts were made to take 
the command from both of them. These failing, a de- 
cree was obtained, that Caesar should resign his com- 
mand ; and that if he refused, he should be declared an 
enemy of the commonwealth. The consuls, as was 
usual in emergencies, were commanded to see that ^the 
commonwealth received no damage.'' This was equivalent 
to dictatorial power. A successor was appointed to 
Caesar in Gaul. 

§ 348. Two, tribunes, friends of Caesar, (of whom 
Mark Antony was one) disguised themselves as slaves, 
and sought his camp, to communicate the true state of 
things at Rome. Caesar presented these tribunes in their 
assumed garb to his army, and told them that these sa- 
cred officers of the people had been compelled to fly 
from Rome, disguised as slaves, to seek their protection. 
A universal acclamation followed, that they would go 
with him to Rome to avenge the wrongs of the republic. 
At this time Caesar's head-quarters were on the Italian 
side of the Alps, then called Cisalpine Gaul, at a place 
called Ravenna, an ancient city, and pott of the Adriat- 
ic sea, aod about one hundred and seventy-five miles di- 
rectly north from Rome, and about thirty miles north of a 
small river which runs into that sea, called the Rubicon. 
This river was then the boundary between the Roman 
territories and Cisalpine Gaul. This was the sacred 
boundary of the domestic empire of Rome. There is 
said to be remaining an ancient decree of the senate, en- 
graved near a place called Rimini, that any person who 
passed that boundary, with an army, legion, or even co- 
hort, should be devoted to the infernal gods, and branded 
with sacrilege and parricide. Whence comes the phrase, 
* to pass the Rubicon.' 

<^349. Caesar gathered his forces on the north side of 
the Rubicon, and having had an unsuccessful corres- 
pondence with Pompey, took his chance with the infer- 
nal gods, crossed the Rubicon, and proceeded towards 
Rome. Pompey having no sufficient means of resist- 
ance, goaded by the sarcasms of Cato, and the disre- 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 181 

garded warnings of Cicero, (now presented with renewed 
self complacency,) departed for Capua, with such as 
pleased to accompany him. This is represented to have 
been a humiliating and mournful scene. Caesar passed 
by Rome, as Hannibal did, and pursued Pompey, who 
retreated to Brundusium a fortified city on the north- 
east side of Italy, and three hundred miles southeast 
from Rome. Csesar was soon before this city. From 
this place Pompey secretly withdrew with his forces to 
Dyrrachium, in Illyria, anciently part of Macedonia. 
The distance between these two places is about one 
hundred and ten miles across the Adriatic. This was 
the route of the Romans to and from the east. One of 
the famous roads of the empire ran from Rome to 
Brundusium. 

§ 350. Csesar then returned to Rome, and possessed 
himself of the great treasures there accumulated, to be 
used when needed in defence against the Gauls. Think- 
ing it indispensable to destroy Pompey's power in Spain, 
he recruited his army, and crossed the Alps. This ex- 
pedition is considered hardly an inferior achievement to 
that of Hannibal. In forty days, after reaching Spain, 
he subdued that country, broke up the armies there, and 
ordered the captive officers to Italy ; and returned by 
the same route to Rome. He was received with accla- 
mations, and appointed consul and dictator. He again 
departed for Brundusium and crossed into Greece, under 
circumstances which would have been regarded as the 
extreme of rashness in any other man. 

§ 351. One is led to believe, from considering the 
character of great military chiefs, that they are inclined 
to superstition ; or that they confide in what they may, 
perhaps, call the star of fortune ; a sort of astrological 
religion. It is supposed, that even Napoleon was not a 
stranger to this sentiment, though he lived in an age so 
different from that of which we are now speaking. An 
instance of this sentiment occurred in Caesar's life, 
about this time. He had passed over to Greece, with a 
part of his forces ; while the residue were on the way to 
Brundusium, they ventured to debate, among themselves, 
on the good or evil which they might expect from this 
civil war. They had advanced slowly, and were a long 
time in embarking. Caesar became apprehensive that 
16 



182 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

all was not as he would have it, and thinking his per*- 
sonal presence might be indispensable he disguised him- 
self as a slave, and hired a small fishing boat, to transport 
him over to Brundusium. It seems that himself, and 
the manager of the boat, were the only persons on board. 
Having passed through Pompey's fleet in the night time, 
undiscovered, they encountered weather so tempestuous 
as to dishearten the boatsman, and he gave himself up 
for lost. At this moment Caesar, hitherto unknown to 
his companion, broke forth in that well known charac- 
teristic expression ; Quid times 1 Csesarem vehis ! (what 
do you fear ? it is CcEsar that you carry ! ) He was, how- 
ever, unable to contend with the winds and waves, in a 
small boat in the Adriatic, and was reluctantly compel- 
led to seek the Grecian shore, without accomplishing his 
purpose. The residue of his forces, with some diminu- 
tion of their number, soon after followed him thither. 

§352. Meanwhile Pompey, who was still considered 
the lawful head of the republic, and entitled to command 
throughout its wide extent, had gathered around him a 
formidable force, from Greece and Asia Minor ; and to 
strengthen him still more, the principal men of the re- 
public adhered to him, and among them were Cicero, 
Cato, Cassius, and more than two hundred senators ; all 
of whom were present with him, in his camp. A great 
question was now to be settled in Roman affiairs, which 
of two aspiring military chiefs, should fight his way to 
supreme power. For, it could hardly be dissembled, 
that whichsoever of them should be master, in virtue of 
victory, must be master of the Roman world. The very 
necessity of settling this point hy a battle, between Ro- 
man citizens, made it certain, that the victorious chief 
must {Sustain himself by military force ; since he could 
have no confidence in the allegiance of those whom he 
must subdue. 

§ 353. It may be inferred from the character of the 
game which was now to be played between two men, so 
celebrated as generals, that both would show their utmost 
ability. The whole empire, the fortunes and lives of 
themselves and friends, and that, which both of them 
may have valued more than all other things, their gene- 
ralship, were involved in the accidents of a single battle. 
A series of military manoeuvres were disclosed, with 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 183 

doubtful results ; and both parties seemed to vie with 
each other, in finding the fortunate position, and pro- 
pitious moment, to commence this tremendous conflict. 
The day of battle came, at Pharsalia, the star of Caesar 
prevailed, and by the much inferior forces, in number, 
of Caesar, those of Pompey were driven back upon their 
own camp, while those of Caesar entered almost at the 
same time with them, and found there, the preparations 
for celebrating a victory, of which Pompey and his friends 
were confidently assured; and even the very crowns of 
laurel, which were to adorn the brows of the victorious ; 
crowns, destined to be worn by other brows than those for 
which they were prepared. Certainly, Caesar or Pompey 
ought to have fallen in this battle. Neither fell ; and it 
must be added, if history tells the trutlj, that the great 
Pompey, on this occasion, did no honour to his fame, as 
a general, or as a man. 

§ 354. Pompey fled to the southern shore of Greece, 
leaving his friends to make their terms, or escape from 
Caesar, as they might. He hurried on board a vessel, 
and departed for the isle of Lesbos, where he had left his 
wife, Cornelia, and his youthful son. He took these on 
board his vessel, and put to sea, uncertain whither to di- 
rect his flight. The man who but a little month before, 
had the supreme command from the Atlantic to the Eu- 
phrates, knew not of one spot of earth on which he could 
repose in safety. He coasted along the shore of Asia 
Minor, uncertain of his fate, and without appearing to 
have made a single effort to retrieve his fortunes. It was 
at length resolved to seek an asylum in Egypt, (which 
had not yet been openly subdued by the Romans,) rely- 
ing on some services which had been rendered, by him- 
self, at a former time, to the late king of that country. 

§ 355. Uncertain of his reception at Alexandria, he 
sent on shore to announce his presence, and to ask an 
asylum. There was, at this time, in Egypt, an expatri- 
ated Roman, named Achillas, who was in high favour, 
as adviser, and military chief, with young king Ptolemy. 
Whatever may have been the motives of this person, he 
seems to have given counsel, that Pompey should be 
treacherously assured of a safe reception at Alexandria ; 
and that the opportunity should be seized, to put him to 
death. The accounts given of Pompey's fate, by differ- 



184 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

ent historians, are inconsistent with each other. Wheth- 
er he passed with his freedman, Philip, to the shore, in 
his own boat, and was met, on landing, by assassins, who 
instantly dispatched him ; or whether he went into a 
boat sent from the shore to receive him, in which was 
this Achillas, and was meanly and unsuspectingly assault- 
ed and slain in this boat, is doubtful. 

356. But all accounts agree, that the murder of Pom- 
pey occurred in view of (^ornelia, who remained on board 
the vessel, near enough to see all that befell Pompey, 
and who testified, by piercing shrieks, her sense of the 
desolating bereavement which she had sustained. All 
accounts farther concur in this, that the assassins of Pom- 
pey severed his head from his body, and took his ring 
from his hand, which bore his official seal, that of these 
might be made an acceptable present to his triumphant 
enemy, Caesar. It is added, that his faithful Philip gath- 
ered the fragments of wood, found upon the shore, and 
made a funeral pile for the headless remains of Pompey ; 
while another story is, that with his hands only, he made 
a shallow grave in the sand, to hide these remains from 
the birds of prey. So ended the career of Pompey, great 
and glorious, (as military men would say,) up to the 
hour that he fled from Pharsalia. He so ended, in the 
year 48 B. C, and in the fifty-eighth of his age. 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 185 



CHAPTER XXV. 

From the death of Pompey, 48 B. C, to the death of Csesar, 44 B. C. 

§ 357. C^SAR pursued Pompey to Egypt, taking with 
him only a small number of troops. On his arrival at 
Alexandria, Pompey's head, and official rin^, were pre- 
sented to him, as the assassins of Pompey intended they 
should be ; but Caesar is said to have turned away from 
these relics, and to have given expression to his feelings, 
by tears. He is also said to have ordered a splendid 
monument, in honour of Pompey. No account is given 
of the inscription which it bore. One would like to know 
what Caesar would have written on Pompey's tomb ; his 
former friend, son-in-law, and personal enemy in the 
struggle for the empire of the world. Would he have 
used the language of self-gratulation, and of vindictive 
conquest ; or of sorrow, that his own fortunes had made 
him such a survivor of the fugitive Pompey ? The sen- 
timents which one may have at the sepulchre of an ene- 
my, and those which one may have in meeting him in 
the field, may be strongly contrasted ; so much honour 
may be done to the human heart as to believe, that Cae- 
sar's tears did flow, and from sources of which he had 
no need to be ashamed. Perhaps he may have remem- 
bered, that the accidents of a battle might have placed 
himself in the condition of being the lifeless subject of 
Pompey's recollections. 

§ 358. The column known by the name of Pompey's 
pillar, at Alexandria, is supposed, by some writers, to be 
the monument which Caesar raised. Others consider it 
to be of later date, and conjectures are various on its 
origin. The shaft measures sixty-four feet ; the base, 
pedestal, and capital together measure twenty-six feet ; 
whole elevation ninety feet. (The loftiest single column 
ever raised, is that of London, in 1666, two hundred and 
eight feet high. The Bunker Hill obelisk will be two 
hundred and twenty feet high.) 
16* 



186 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

§ 359. Csesar found the royal family of Egypt, consist- 
ing of a youthful king, named Ptolemy, and his two 
sisters, Cleopatra and Arsinoe, contending for the crown. 
CsBsar took upon himself, in virtue of his dignity as Ro- 
man consul, (though Egypt was yet, at least nominally 
independent,) to settle this contention, and ordered the 
parties to appear before him. This assumption was not 
well received by the Alexandrians, and gave much dis- 
pleasure to Ptolemy, who had possession of the throne. 
Cleopatra had fled, and was, at this time, in Syria, or 
somewhere at the eastern end of the Mediterranean. 
Hearing of Caesar's presence in Egypt, she returned se- 
cretly, and caused herself to be carried, hidden beneath 
some envelope, into the residence of Csesar. Cleopatra 
was then twenty-one years old. She was celebrated for 
beauty, accomplishments, and learning, but more so for 
her artful management. She has left abundant proof of 
her fascinating attractions. There are pictures of her 
extant, but whether they are fanciful representations, or 
true ones, cannot be known. Probably the former, be- 
cause they purport that she was, in beauty, of the Cir- 
cassian caste ; that is, of complexion formed of the white 
and red rose. Yet, as she was of Grecian descent, and 
dwelt always in a burning clime, it may be supposed that 
her complexion was of swarthy hue. However this may 
have been, she was born when Alexandria was still the 
abode of science and learning ; and it is said of her, that 
she had been so well instructed as to be able to give au- 
dience to seven ambassadors, who spoke different lan- 
guages, and that she could reply to each of them, in his 
own. 

§ 360. The conqueror of Pompey was not long in de- 
ciding that young Ptolemy must yield the throne to 
Cleopatra. This decision involved him in an unexpected 
civil war, with very inadequate forces on his part. He 
was compelled to shut himself up in Alexandria; and, at 
last, to fortify himself in a part of it. His mihtary skill 
was put to the severest trial, and he was on the very point 
of being taken by young Ptolemy's army, when a part 
of his own army arrived, by the way of Syria, and saved 
him from this disgrace. In this warfare a part of the 
Alexandrian library was destroyed. One historian says, 
that in one of the conflicts in which Caesar was involved, 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 187 

while at Alexandria, his own troops were seized with a 
panic, and fled ; that he could, by no means, rally them; 
and was obliged to fly himself. This event happened in 
the port of Alexandria ; and nearly opposite to the pal- 
ace. To save himself, he retired to a ship ; but so many 
followed him, that he was apprehensive of the sinking of 
the ship, and therefore jumped into the sea, and swam to 
the fleet which lay before the palace. All this may have 
happened ; but one must be allowed some incredulity, 
when it is added, that while he was swimming to save 
his life, he held his own commentaries in his left hand, 
and his coat of mail with his teeth. 

§361. Cleopatra was reinstated in her dominion; and 
while Caesar was performing for her this service, he fell 
into the snares of this fascinating queen, and in her soci- 
ety forgot Rome, empire, and even his own ambition. 
He remained nine months in Egypt, at a time, when 
almost every person in Italy, felt that his own destiny 
depended on that of Caesar. He had even assented to a 
splendid and luxurious expedition up the Nile, in compa- 
ny with Cleopatra, when the loudly expressed displeas- 
ure of his military followers roused him from his delu- 
sion. Some accounts say, that this expedition was made 
with four hundred galleys. Meanwhile months elapsed, 
and nothing was heard of Caesar at Rome. His lieuten- 
ant, Mark Antony, had gone thither, and exercised all 
the powers of government in the name of Caesar, but 
abandoning himself, at the same time, to the most dis- 
graceful profligacy. One is reluctant to believe the ac- 
counts given of this man's depravity ; and more reluct- 
ant still to believe, that Rome itself was already so de- 
praved as to have endured them. 

§362. On leaving Egypt, Caesar went to the city of 
Tarsus, at the north-eastern corner of the Mediterranean, 
intending to regulate his empire there, and proceed 
thence westwardly, for like purposes, through all Asia 
Minor, and Greece, to Rome. His long absence from 
Asia Minor had given opportunity for revolt, and hostil- 
ity. Pharnaces, son of the celebrated Mithridates, was 
then kins of Pontus, which it will be recollected, is on 
the south side of the Black Sea, northwardly from the 
city of Tarsus. Pharnaces ventured to oppose himself to 
Caesar, who assembled such forces as he had near at 



188 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

hand, and soon conquered this enemy. It was in giving 
an account of this conquest, that he used the well known 
words, Veni, vidi, vici ; (I came, I saw, I conquered.) 
These words made a conspicuous appearance in the tri- 
umphal "display of his exploits and victories, when he 
returned to Rome. 

§ 363. Csesar was expected to return to Italy, by the 
usual route to and from the East, that is, to arrive at 
Brundusium. At this place a great number of distin- 
guished persons had long been assembled, awaiting his 
arrival, some to make their peace, some to render their 
homage, and some to take the chances of new events. It 
may be that Cgesar expecting this, thought best to come 
round the south-eastern point of Italy, and land at Ta- 
rentum. Among the persons who were waiting at Brun- 
dusium, was Cicero. When he heard that Csesar had 
landed at Tarentum, he went towards that city, and met 
Csesar on his way to Rome. Both left their carriages, 
saluted each other respectfully, and walked together on 
the way, and separate from others. It is gathered from 
Csesar 's letters, that he then made a sort of treaty with 
Csesar, under which Csesar and himself were to let each 
other alone ; and that Cicero should devote himself to 
philosophy in retirement. It is supposed, that many of 
the works for which Cicero has been so long and so just- 
ly esteemed, by all persons who reverence learning and 
good morals, were produced in this stipulated seclusion. 
If this be so, some of the works which proceeded from 
him, may have been written about the years 48-47 B. C. 
at his villa of Tusculum, or near the sea-shore, northward- 
ly of Naples, in Campania. Among these works, were 
the essay on the pleasures of friendship ; and that on old 
age. His work, also, on nature of the gods, is interest- 
ing, as giving the sentiments of that time on religion, so 
near to the time when Christianity was revealed. That 
work of Cicero which has attracted unqualified commen- 
dation of all times since, (in which there was intelligence 
enough to comprehend it,) is called De Officiis, (TuUy's 
offices) and is a truly excellent exposition of moral duty- 
Some of his admirable letters were, perhaps, written 
about the same period. He did not, however, long re- 
main in seclusion ; for in Csesar's life-time, he again ap- 
peared at Rome, engaged in public vocations. 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 189 

<5)364. Caesar arrived at Rome, in the year 48 B. C. 
He employed himself some time in public affairs. After 
the batttle of Pharsalia, the republican leaders, who were 
with Pompey, there, and those who were fearful of Cae- 
sar's vengeance, had gathered what forces they could 
command, in Africa, on the borders of the kingdom of 
Numidia, intending to hold together, with the help of Ju- 
ba, then the king of that territory. The most distin- 
guished of these persons were Cato, Scipio, Varrus, La- 
bienus, and Petrienus. Cato was the representative of 
the republican senate of Rome; Scipio of its armies, and 
Varrus of its maritime power; the other two were mili- 
tary chiefs. Caesar had assembled his veteran legions 
near Capua, about ten miles north of Naples, intending 
to conduct them to Africa, to subdue this remnant of the 
republican party. These legions became dissatisfied, and 
proceeded to Rome, defying all opposition. When they 
came near, Caesar sent to them to make known that 
they might come into the city with their arms, (which he 
could not prevent) and that he would receive them in 
person. 

§ 365. His friends endeavoured to dissuade him from 
taking so great a hazard ; but he persisted in it, and 
was already in the Campus Martins, placed on an ele- 
vation from which he could be seen and heard, when his 
rebellious legions entered. They crowded around him, 
and he began by asking of them what they wanted ? 
They answered, their reward, and the performance of 
promises. He replied by calling them Quirites, (fellow 
citizens) and assuring them that they should have their 
reward ; that they had entitled themselves to repose, and 
that he would find other legions to accompany him to Af- 
rica, and to share with him new victories and honours. 
But they repelled the name of Quirites, and insisted that 
they were soldiers, and that none but themselves should 
share in his future glory. And thus this remarkable man 
silenced an armed rebellion, unarmed himself, and by 
skilful management, converted into a new alliance a war 
which might soon have brought him to the close of his 
career. 

§ 366. In September, with an audacity which seems 
always to have stood in place of wisest counsel, with this 
successful man, he went over to Africa to put down his 



190 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

opponents there, and bring them to the rank of loyal, or 
submissive subjects. After many perilous adventures, he 
triumphed over this band of patriots. The last of Cae- 
sar's victories in Africa brought him to the city of Utica, 
where Cato's little senate held their councils. This place 
was directly north of the modern city of Tunis, distant 
thirty miles, and ten miles north of Carthage, six miles 
from the sea, and directly south from the island of Sar- 
dinia. It was known that Caesar must be there on a cer- 
tain day. Cato advised his friends to consult their own 
feelings, as to making further resistance. At first, it 
was resolved to sell their lives dearly ; but other thoughts 
took place of these. One after another resolved on sub- 
mission. Juba, king of Numidia, the ally of the repub- 
lican party, was among the conquered in this war. 

^ 367. Cato was, at this time, forty-eight years old. 
He was descended from the celebrated Roman whose 
name he bore, called Cato the Censor, who died about 
one hundred years before this time. To distinguish this 
Cato from his ancestor, he is called Cato Uticensis. 
His life was one of noble exertion to preserve the liber- 
ties of his country ; and no one of the Romans seems to 
have been held in higher honour among his countrymen 
for his inflexible virtues. He was deeply versed in Gre- 
cian philosophy, and of the sect called Stoics. One of 
the distinguishing principles of this sect was, that life is 
a gift, which any one may lawfully resign, when it is no 
longer worth preserving. He usually had with him, as 
companions, some philosophers of this sect. There 
were two with him at Utica. Cato is said never to have 
been elated, nor depressed ; and never to have laughed. 
On the evening preceding the arrival of Caesar, he sup- 
ped with his friends cheerfully, conversing on philosoph- 
ical subjects. Some one proposed to him to seek the 
pardon of Caesar. He answered, ' I have done him no 
wrong, I am not an object of his pardon ; and shall not 
request of him as a favour, what it would be insolence in 
him to offer me.' He retired to his chamber, and having 
read Plato's discussion on the immortality of the soul, he 
fell asleep. The next morning he inflicted on himself a 
wound with his sword, by which he became insensible ; 
and while he was so, his wound was dressed. When he 
revived, he tore the wound open with his own hands, and 
expired, 44 B. C. 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 191 

§ 368. Caesar returned to Rome. He decreed to him- 
self four successive triumphs in one month. The first, 
for his victories in Gaul, in which a Gaulish prince was 
led in fetters. The second, for his victory in Eg:ypt, in 
which Arsinoe, the sister of Cleopatra, so youthful and 
beautiful, as to excite the compassion even of the popu- 
lace, followed at his chariot wheels. The third, for his 
victory over Pharnaces, designated by large labels bear- 
ing his veni, vidi, vici. The fourth, for the overthrow of 
Juba of Numidia, whose infant son was borne in the pro- 
cession. Two human sacrifices are said to have been 
offered in the field of Mars. A feast for 20,000 persons 
was given, and the crowd was so great that two Roman 
senators were trodden down, and perished. Public 
shows and gladiatorial combats were presented, and large 
sums of money were given to the people. 

§ 369. He preserved the forms of the republic, but 
exercised all power himself. He even used the names 
of senators without consulting them. Cicero says, that 
he had letters from persons, in distant provinces, of 
whose names he had never heard, thanking him for 
bestowing on them the title of king. In one respect 
he deserves commendation when his conduct is com- 
pared with that of Marius and Sylla. He passed a de- 
cree of indemnity to all who had opposed him. All 
parties and persons seemed to vie in the fulsome adula- 
tions offered to Caesar. Among the many things of this 
nature it was decreed, ' that a crown of gold set with 
gems, like those of the gods, should be carried before 
him into the circus, attended with a car like that on 
which the idols of the gods were carried ; that he should 
be dictator for hfe, and have the title of Juhan Jove.' 
A temple was erected to him, in conjunction with the 
goddess of clemency. The priest appointed to the sa- 
cred worship of this temple, was none other than the 
profligate and infamous Mark Antony. 

§ 370. Caesar had not yet subdued all his adversaries. 
Pompey left a powerful party in Spain. His two sons 
were there, with considerable forces. It was indispen- 
sable to Caesar's further objects to crush these opponents. 
He prepared, in the next year, to pass into Spain. This 
was the second expedition to this country undertaken by 
him, since his usurpation. He appears to have risked 



192 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

every thing on his destiny, in this instance, as he did in 
most others. The sons of Pompey had every induce- 
ment to make this a fatal enterprise to Csesar. They 
came very near to make it so. In one of his battles there 
(at Munda,) he found victory turning against him, when 
he seized a common soldier's sword and buckler, and 
threw himself into the ranks : ' What,' said he, ' veter- 
ans ! are we, at last, to be beaten by boys?' One of 
those lucky accidents which sometimes decide the fate 
of a battle, then saved him. He afterwards said, that he 
had often fought for victory, but never before, for his life. 
One of Pompey's sons was slain, the other wounded, and 
narrowly escaped with his life. Caesar returned and de- 
creed to himself a fifth triumph, for his victory in Spain. 

§ 371. There was now nothing left for Caesar's am- 
bition to seek, but to have the title, as well as the 
substance, of royalty. It is not to be doubted that he 
considered the wearing of a crown indispensable to legit- 
imate his power. This desire was not concealed from 
bis friends, and they were not dull in comprehending his 
wants. The attempt to crown Caesar was repeatedly 
made. The subservient Mark Antony offered the dia- 
dem to him in full senate. The feelings expressed by 
spectators, satisfied Caesar, that hatred of kings still ran 
in the blood of the Romans. During the following night, 
the statues of Caesar were adorned with crowns, but the 
praetors (very little to the gratification of Caesar,) offered 
a reward for the discovery of those who had so dishon- 
oured the public sentiment. 

§ 372. The Parthians, who dwelt around the shores of 
the Caspian sea, on the south and east, were almost the 
only people, known to the Romans, whom they had not 
conquered. The Romans had, for centuries, contended 
with the Parthians, who seem often to be confounded 
with the Persians ; but they were a distinct people from 
the Persians, though both these nations seem to have 
united sometimes, in their warfare against Rome. It 
was officially announced, as recorded in the ' Sibylline 
books,' that the Parthians never could be conquered, but 
by one who had the title of king. But the populace of 
Rome were deaf to this suggestion. In an odious festi- 
val called the Lupercalia, Mark Antony again tendered 
the crown, and besought Caesar to accept it as the gift of 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 193 

the people. But still he discerned, that the people did 
not intend such a gift. About this time, Cleopatra made 
a visit to Csesar, the manner in which he received her, 
and lived with her, and her own imperial deportment in 
public, tended to disgust the people with all the indica- 
tions of royalty, and Ceesar failed to attain to the last 
step in the ascent ; that is, to be crowned king of the 
Romans. 

§ 373. Failing in this ultimate gratification, (though 
exercising the most absolute authority,) and having noth- 
ing more to hope for, Caesar began to feel how empty 
and worthless pomp and flattery may be to a mind still 
aspiring ; and how unsatisfying the possession of any 
extent of power may be, when the possessor is not in- 
fluenced by any social sentiment, but is given up to 
motives, entirely selfish. It was Csesar's fate to know, 
how miserable a man may be whom all the world envies. 
To console his chagrin he exercised his power severely, 
and assumed to control the manners, and the luxuries, 
of the Romans. He became naturally, and perhaps ne- 
cessarily, tyrannical. His decrees grew more and more 
oppressive, and his personal enemies became more and 
more determined. At last, a part of the republican pa- 
triots, who had survived the changes which Csesar had 
wrought in Rome, gradually discerned in each other, a 
sympathy, as his enemies ; or rather as the friends of 
Roman liberty. With the caution which the case de- 
manded, they disclosed themselves to each other, and 
undertook the hazardous enterprise of ridding their coun- 
try, of what they called a tyrant ; but as it proved, only 
to give place to another sort of rule, which has claim to 
stand first in the deliberate wickedness of men. 

§ 374. The ides of March (15th) had been assigned 
for considering in the senate, whether the title of king 
should be given to Csesar in the provinces, and that of 
dictator only, at Rome. The same day was fixed on, 
by the conspirators, to accomplish their purpose. Among 
the accounts of the events of this time, so many of them 
narrate the omens and warnings, which Csesar had of his 
fate, that they deserve to be noticed, not as such, but as 
indicative of the character of the times. Thus it is said, 
that during the preceding night a strong wind burst open 
the door of Caesar's chamber, which awoke him ; and 
17 



194 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

that he was attracted by the agitated sleep of his wife 
Calphurnia; who being waked by him, said she was 
dreaming, that he was assassinated in her arms. Spurina, 
an augur (or diviner of the fates,) warned him to beware 
of the ides of March. Csesar was earnestly besought by 
his wife, and friends, not to go out on that day, and was 
inclined to yield to their counsels. The conspirators 
fearing that he would not go to the senate, sent Decimus 
Brutus to induce him to go. Brutus urged on him the 
importance of the business to be transacted, and Caesar 
departed with Brutus for the capitol. A slave had over- 
heard the conspirators, and endeavoured to make known 
their plot to Csesar, but he was prevented by the crowd, 
from getting near enough to do so. Artemidorus, a 
Greek philosopher, had also discovered the plot, and 
passing through the crowd, handed Caesar a paper which, 
if it had been read, would have disclosed the whole to 
him. But this mode of communication being common, 
Caesar merely handed the paper to his secretary, to be 
preserved. When he ascended the steps of the capitol he 
saw Spurina, and in allusion to his warning, said, in 
passing, ' The ides of March are come !' ' Yes ;' an- 
swered Spurina, ' but they are not passed !' Among 
the proofs of female curiosity, it is related that Portia, 
the wife of Marcus Brutus, seeing him labouring with 
gome absorbing secret, resolved to be mistress of it. She 
besought him to reveal it, and finding him silent, or eva- 
feive, she made known to him that she had inflicted a deep 
wound on her own person ; that she had suffered from it 
an agonizing pain, and yet she had so conducted herself, 
as not even to be suspected of any indisposition. ' And 
cannot,' said she, 'the daughter of Cato, and wife of Bru- 
tus, keep a secret ?' Her husband was overcome, and 
Portia forthwith knew the whole extent of the plot. It 
is surprising that the whole scheme had not exploded, as 
so many were involved in it, and the probability of a con- 
spiracy against Caesar having been so frequently intimat- 
ed to him by his friends. 

§ 375. It was a hazardous enterprise to assassinate 
Caesar, who had won to himself many personal friends, 
and who was strong in power ; and, especially, as it seems 
that this work could only be done in the most public 
manner. The conspirators, it appears, as in all such ca- 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 195 

ses, were repeatedly and seriously alarmed ; and some- 
times believed that their purpose was not only suspected, 
but entirely disclosed. Portia was not so much at ease 
with her secret, as she had been with her wound ; for 
after Caesar had gone to the capitol, she ran into the 
street, and, in an almost frantic manner, asked of those 
who passed, what was doing in the senate chamber, and 
whether they had seen Brutus, and whether he was safe ; 
till, at length, unable to bear longer her excessive agita- 
tion, she swooned in the street, and was carried, insen- 
sible, to her home. This lady, it may be added, was one 
of the victims of the conspiracy. In the future detail 
of events, she found it expedient to kill herself, which she 
did, (having no other means at hand,) by swallowing 
burning coals. 

§ 376. The manner and place of Caesar's death, seem 
to have secured to him the sympathy of all subsequent 
ages. The moral right, or wrong, of killing Caesar, is a 
question open to discussion. If the agents in this tra- 
gedy knew, that Rome could return to republican forms, 
and it had been found, that the people were capable of 
governing themselves, one would find no difficulty in jus- 
tifying the conspirators. This point they seem entirely 
to have overlooked, and they only increased, to a deplor- 
able extent, the miseries of their country. That in 
which historians seem to concur, is this ; that Marcus 
Brutus, Caius Cassius, Decimus Brutus, C. L. Casca, Me- 
tellus Cimber, and fifty-five others, were the persons who 
undertook to kill Caesar, in the senate house. Caesar 
being seated in the chair of state, near to Pompey's sta- 
tue, Cimber presented a petition for the pardon of his 
brother, which Caesar refused ; and while Cimber was 
pressing for a favourable decree, he took hold of Caesar's 
robe, seemingly as a suppHant, but in reality to hold him 
down, and at the same time flung back his own gown 
from his shoulders. Other accounts say it was Caesar's 
gown that he threw back. This act of Cimber is said to 
have been indicative of the moment when the conspira- 
tors were to strike. The first blow came from Casca. 
Caesar started, and thrust Cimber from him with one arm, 
and laid hold on Casca with the other ; but the conspir- 
ators closed in upon him, and he saw that resistance 
was in vain. Seeing Decimus Brutus among the armed 



196 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

against him, who was reputed to be his own son, he said, 
Et tu Brute ! (And you, Brutus ! ) But some historians 
report the expression used by Caesar to have been this : 
'And you too ! my son !' Tiien perceiving that his hour 
was come, according to the manner of the Romans in 
dying, he gathered his robe around him, and fell under 
repeated blows, at the foot of Pompey's statue, on the 
15th March, 44 B. C, in his fifty-sixth year. 

§ 377. This wholly unexpected and astonishing event, 
threw Rome into the utmost consternation. No provis- 
ions had been made by the conspirators, for the estab- 
lishment of any government. They were soon awakened 
to a sense of their error, by perceiving that they had 
around them at least as many foes as friends ; and that 
the day had gone by, in which Romans would hail the 
destruction of a despot, as the restoration of a republic. 
Their own personal safety was pressed upon their notice, 
and they retired in a body to the capitol, and shut them- 
selves up. Meanwhile, all was tumult and confusion. 
Some were mourning over Caesar, some venting their re- 
proaches en the conspirators, some consulting what the 
exigency demanded. The following day, some commu- 
nications passed between the senators and the conspira- 
tors, and it was agreed that Marcus Brutus should address 
the people, from the steps of the capitol, and explain 
the meaning of killing Csesar. This was done ; but was 
not followed by a restoration of the republic, nor of any 
regular government. The remarkable expedient was re- 
sorted to of permitting Csesar's will to prescribe a gov- 
ernment for the Romans, though they would not let him 
live and rule. Mark Antony obtained possession of the 
will, and displayed talent and ingenuity, not to have been 
expected from so worthless a person. He made an ora- 
tion over the dead body of Csesar, and with no inconsid- 
erable art and effect, according to historical accounts. 
Whatsoever speech he may have made for himself, on 
this occasion, that which Shakspeare made for him near- 
ly 1650 years afterwards, is likely to make his name 
known, as long as the genius of this poetical historian 
shall be admired. He was orator enough to touch the 
hearts of the Roman populace; and they soon came to 
the belief, that Caesar had been cruelly and wickedly 
slain ; and that Rome had lost the first and greatest man 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 197 

of whom it could ever boast, and themselves, the most 
munificent benefactor they ever had. The sighs and tears 
that Antony drew forth over fallen Caesar, warned the 
conspirators that Rome was no place for them, and they 
sought safety in flight. A citizen named Cinna, who was 
mistaken for the conspirator of that name, was torn in 
pieces by the populace. It was now discerned, by these 
clear-sighted people, how great and good Caesar was; 
and all Rome devoted itself to render him due honour in 
funeral obsequies. 

§ 378. The character of Caesar has been drawn by 
many delineators, each one perceiving the traits of Caesar 
according to his own lights, or to answer his own pur- 
poses, on the occasion which prompted him to write. It 
is not perceived, that it is of much importance to know 
more of Caesar, than that he aspired, in a corrupt and 
broken-down republic, to become a king; and that some 
of his fellow-citizens, from good or bad motives, from 
patriotism, envy, personal enmity, or from all these cau- 
ses combined, had fellow feeling enough, as to his per- 
sonal presence, and acquired power, to conspire and put 
him to death ; that they effected their purposes ; plunged 
their country into the most deplorable calamities ; and 
that each one of the whole number thereby laid the foun- 
dation of his own death, by some sort of violence, either 
voluntary or inevitable. 

§ 379. But as Caesar was a person so eminent as to be 
frequently mentioned, or referred to, it may be worth 
while to condense the historical accounts of him, without 
any other solicitude than to state, on the most approved 
authorities, what seems to be nearest the truth. In his 
person, Caesar was tall, slender, and fair. In his early 
manhood, he was a man of many pleasures, not to say a 
profligate. He was, nevertheless, a man of great intel- 
lectual attainments; and if he had devoted himself to 
study, and to eloquence, as Cicero did, he might have 
been the equal, if not the superior, of the first of Roman 
orators. According to Cicero, who seems to have been 
in a proper position to judge of him, we are informed ; 
*I discovered in all his enterprises, and in his whole con- 
duct, a plan, continually pursued, of raising himself to 
the tyranny. But when I saw him so soft in his dress, 

and manner of livinor, with effeminate gestures, and his 
17*- 



198 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

hair in such nice order, I could not believe, that such a 
man was capable of forming and executing the design 
of subverting the Roman commonwealth.' 

§ 380. If he is to be judged of as a soldier, by the va- 
riety and nurnber of his campaigns and his battles, where 
often the most consummate skill, and a courage ap- 
proaching to rashness, were exhibited ; and his almost 
invariable success ; and by that most eminent of all qual- 
ities, the power of commanding the confidence and the 
affections of other men, it may be just to give him a rank, 
at least equal to that of any military chief of any age. 
In the power of using his acquirements, and of doing 
what he desired to do, he has had few superiors. He 
was rapid and effe,ctive, in body and mind. He could 
dictate to three secretaries, at the same time, on three 
entirely different subjects. Perhaps he may have been 
excelled in this respect. He was indefatigably industri- 
ous. In this he was the equal of his (probable) imitator, 
Napoleon; in scholarship, and intellectual refinement, 
greatly his superior. He is known to have been a writer 
on grammar, astronomy, religious polity, history, and 
poetry ; though none of his works have escaped the rav- 
ages of time, but some of his epistles and 'commentaries,' 
that is, his history of the Gallic and civil wars. He cor- 
rected the Calendar, with advice of learned men, and 
established the ' Julian year.' The month of July is sup- 
posed to bear that name from him. 

§ 381. There does not appear to be any evidence of 
what Cicero so clearly foresaw, (after it had happened,) 
a settled design from the beginning, 'of raising himself to 
the tyranny.' Men rarely see so far ahead in affairs. 
The events and prospects of a short space of time, are 
usually enough to fill any mind, in great political move- 
ments. It is rather to be supposed, that as he advanced 
in his career, new scenes and new expectations opened 
to his view. It is giving Caesar credit for more far-sight- 
edness than belongs to human nature, to suppose, that 
i/vhile he was killing off the Gauls beyond the Alps, he 
had his eye fixed on a diadem at Rome. This is precise- 
ly the peril to which nations are subjected. A successful 
and aspiring individual goes on from step to step, and is 
no less surprised, than those who look on are, to per- 
ceive how far he has advanced ; and that like Csesar he 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 199 

cannot retrace his steps, but must assume the power now 
within his reach. The only safety in a republic is, to 
discern and to reprobate, the first step beyond the limit 
of lawful authority. The world has been dazzled by the 
transcendent abilities of Caesar ; and is, in general, much 
more disposed to render its homage to the power to do, 
what very few can do, than to the good use which is made 
of such power. It is probable that the admirers of Na- 
poleon have had their powers of vision very much im- 
paired, in looking at the splendour of his glory. If we 
take from Caesar his military renown, and justly weigh 
his public acts, what is there to admire in Caesar 1 On 
the other hand, if we regard him as a man, or as a moral 
and social agent, we may perhaps be disposed to adopt 
the opinion of one who has estimated the worth of his 
character in these words : 'His private conduct would be 
a very bad model ; his whole life was a scene of rapine, 
extortion, luxury, and profusion ; and shows, throughout, 
a devotedness to all kinds of scandalous debaucheries.' 
Yet, it must not be overlooked, that Caesar lived at the 
most debased and corrupt age that the world has hitherto 
experienced ; and when moral worth was not a facility, 
but a hindrance, in obtaining any thing which could be 
the subject of desire. 



200 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 



CHAPTER XXVI. 

From the death of Caesar, (44 B. C.) to the death of Augustus in 
the 14th year of the Christian era, (or A. C. 14.) 

§ 382. The principal heir named in Caesar's will, was 
Caius Octavius, son of a person of the same name, and 
of Accia, a daughter of Julia, who was Caesar's sister.^ 
Octavius was required to take the name of his great 
uncle, and was thence called Caius Julius Caesar Octavi- 
us. When Caesar fell, this person was eighteen years of 
age, and was then at the Grecian city of Apollonia^ 
where he was engaged in the study of philosophy, and 
where he received the news of his uncle's death. Thi& 
youth immediately went to Rome, and there displayed 
talent, duplicity and boldness, not to be expected from 
one of his years. He found Mark Antony, in the char- 
acter of representative of Caesar, and in possession of hi» 
will and property, and obviously preparing to copy Cse* 
sar's usurpation. 

§383. He demanded of Antony the money of Caesar 
which Antony had taken ; and the payment of Caesar's 
legacies to the people ; and, Antony not complying, Oc- 
tavius sold his patrimony, and applied its proceeds in 
payment, and promised to make up all deficiencies when 
he could. Thus Antony and Octavius became bitter 
enemies. The senate, being fearful of Antony's designs, 
favoured the efforts of Octavius to strengthen himself in 
liis purposes, and saw with complacency, that be had 
made himself a favourite with the people, and with the 
veteran legions of Caesar. In this state of things, Anto- 
ny left Rome to take the government of the territory calt- 
ed Cisalpine Gaul, which lies between the Alps and the 
north part of the Peninsula of Italy. There was then a 
Roman army in what is now Germany, (then Gaul,) 
commanded by an inferior person named Lepidus. It 
was soon apparent, what Antony intended. The senate 
declared him an enemy of his country. Cicero made his 
celebrated orations against Antony at this period. Oc- 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 201 

tavius had found the way to the heart of Cicero, and re- 
joiced that Rome had so exjDcrienced, so wise, and so 
eloquent a defender ; and even aftected to be governed 
entirely by Cicero's counsel. Two armies had been sent 
against Antony, led by two consuls, both of whom fell in 
battle. Octavius, though only twenty years of age, had 
been made consul, and on the death of these two consuls, 
united their armies, and took the supreme command. 
The army of Lepidus had come over the Alps, and was 
united with all that remained of Antony's forces. The 
army which Octavius commanded was that sent forth by 
the senate, to defend the republic ; that of Antony and 
Lepidus, was such a one as Caesar commanded when he 
crossed the Rubicon. 

§ 384. Who could doubt that Octavius and Antony 
would do their utmost to destroy each other ; the one 
that he might triumph over his personal enemy, and re- 
ceive the applause of Cicero, the gratitude of the senate, 
and the highest honours in Rome ; the other, that he 
might crush a stripling upstart, and proceed to Rome as 
its master, and be the liberal dispenser of his own hon- 
ours. The armies came in sight of each other on the op- 
posite sides of a small river, called the Lavinus, (some say 
the Penarus) supposed to be one of the southern branch- 
es of the Po ; but no battle ensued, nor was there a symp- 
tom of hostility between these inveterate foes. All that 
met the eye was, that small bridges were built from the 
banks of the river, on each side, to an elevated island, 
so that both armies could see what might be doing there. 
To this island Lepidus, Antony, and Octavius were seen 
to go, and beyond the hearing of any persons but them- 
selves, to hold a conference, which continued through 
three successive days. When it closed, such represent- 
ations were made to the armies as the case required. It 
afterwards appeared, that in this conference the whole 
Roman empire, with all its people, and property, had 
been constituted and made a joint stock for this new 
partnership to deal with, and use, at their own pleasure, 
and without any other rules of government, than such as 
they saw fit to make. Each party had to make some 
concessions to the other ; that is, the friends of each one 
were, of course, enemies of the other two ; and it was in- 
dispensable that the enemies of all three of them, should 



302 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

be exterminated. Therefore Octavius gave up his friend 
Cicero, whom Antony, hated ; and also his own guardian 
Thoranius. Lepidus gave up his own brother, Lucius 
Paulus. Antony sacrificed his uncle, Lucius Csesar. Be- 
sides these, each party named whom he pleased for de- 
struction, so that a list of 300 senators, and 2,000 eques- 
trians, besides many of less note, and including the best 
men remaining in Rome, was completed. This list was 
to be farther increased, as the parties might find conve- 
nient. To bind the contract, Antony betrothed his step- 
daughter, Fulvia, to Octavius, an arrangement which 
Octavius had no intention to regard. The armies, though 
composed of Roman citizens , readily adopted the views 
of their leaders ; a terrible example of what armies may 
become. The union of these three men is called the 
second triumvirate. 

§ 385. Bands of assassins were immediately sent to 
Rome. The united armies followed. The plot of the 
triumvirate was neither known nor suspected. The first 
intimation had of it, was the slaughter of the proscribed* 
As it was not known who were, and who were not to be 
slain, the consternation was universal. Every one who 
supposed himself marked for death, sought safety, or 
concealment, as resistance was not practicable. The 
details of these massacres are truly shocking ; and the 
instances of affection, and domestic misery, exceedingly 
touching. The attack of cities, and consequent slaugh- 
ter, in civil and international war, are of familiar occur- 
rence. So also,' the proscription and slaughter of per- 
sons, under sanction of public authority, as in the time 
of Marius and Sylla. But the sending of an armed ban- 
ditti into a city containing more than three millions of 
persons, with orders to kill some thousands without trial, 
accusation, or notice, and with permission, of course, to 
kill whomsoever they might choose to kill, is, probably, 
a case that stands alone in the history of the world. 
While this work was ffoins: on in Rome, detachments 
were sent throughout Italy. Cicero had good reason to 
suppose that his destruction was intended. Being then 
at his villa, near Capua, he attempted to escape in a ves- 
sel ; but the wind being adverse, and the sea very trouble- 
some to him, on account of age and sickness, he desired 
to be put on shore for the night. Next morning his at- 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 203 

tendants were carrying him in a litter to the vessel, when 
the footsteps of his pursuers were heard. Perceiving 
who they were, he ordered his litter to stop, and stretch- 
ing out his head, it fell at a single blow. He so perished 
in his sixty-fourth year, 43 B. C. Antony placed his head 
on the rostrum, from which his eloquence had been so 
often heard. 

<5> 386. The triumvirate, fearing nothing, and command- 
ing every thing, proceeded leisurely to exterminate their 
adversaries, and to enrich themselves by the most op- 
pressive exactions. The term of their partnership was 
live years. Antony was to command in Gaul, Lepidus in 
Spain, Octavius in Africa, and in the Mediterranean 
isles. Italy and the East were to be in common. The 
eastern provinces were so held, because thither Brutus 
and Cassius had gone, who were yet to be subdued. 
There were many young Romans in Greece, engaged in 
their studies. These Brutus assembled, with many oth- 
er persons ; and Cassius went farther east, and gathered 
such forces as he could, and a very formidable army was 
assembled under these two republicans. Antony and Oc- 
tavius led an army from Italy, to meet that of Brutus and 
Cassius. This event occurred at Philippi, on the bor- 
ders of Thrace and Macedonia; and here was shed the 
last blood of republican Rome. This great battle was 
fought in the year 42 B. C* 

§^87. The victory was a long time doubtful. One 
wing of each army was defeated; but, at last, the repub- 
licans were vanquished. In considering the events of this 
interesting contest, it is obvious how much the fate of a 
battle depends on incidents and circumstances which 
cannot be foreseen, but of which military talent alone can 
take advantage. In this are found the comparative me- 
rits of generalship. Brutus and Cassius ought to have 
been conquerors, and would have been so, if they had 
known, during the battle, how their respective wings were 
contending. But, to what use would they have been 
victors ? Rome was unworthy of such men. It was fit 
only to be governed by such men as composed the triura- 

* This is the same place at which the gospel was first preached in 
Europe; St Paul preached here A. D. 51. The Epistle of Paul to 
the Philippians was written to the church here. 



204 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

virate. Brutus and Cassius died here ; not in this hard 
fought battle, but after their defeat, by their own hands ; 
or, (as some say) by the friendly acts of their attend- 
ants. Brutus is commended by historians for noble vir- 
tues, the highest intellectual improvement, and the most 
amiable qualities. Sometime before the battle, a spectre 
was said to have appeared to him in his tent, which cal- 
led itself his evil genius. — In parting, it said, 'We shall 
meet again at Philippi.' If any such thing happened, it 
was one of those illusions which a high state of excite- 
ment engenders, and which are as likely to occur in a 
great mind, as in one of different order, when great 
events are depending. 

§ 388. The triumvirate being completely successful, 
they had only to punish their victims, and to give them- 
selves up to the enjoyment of their power. Octavius 
went back to Italy, and Antony went through Asia Mi- 
nor, in a kind of triumphal journey, receiving homage, 
inflicting punishments, and dispensing kingdoms and pro- 
vinces. The island of Cyprus was then under Egyptian 
government. Antony called its governor to account, for 
having aided Brutus and Cassius. Cleopatra was near 
by, and prepared to ajDpear, in person, to defend her 
governor. Antony had established a sort of royal court 
at Tarsus, on the river Cydnus. Cleopatra (then twen- 
ty-seven years old) came down the river in a galley richly 
ornamented with gold, the sails of purple silk, the oars 
covered over with plates of silver, and which moved to 
the sound of flutes and cymbals. She reclined on a couch 
richly adorned with emblems, which poets and painters 
appropriate to Venus. Beautiful boys, as Cupids, and 
young females, as Nymphs and Graces, were in attend- 
ance. One who had caught Caesar, and young Pompey, 
in her web, had but light labour in binding Antony. 

§ 389. Antony having accompanied Cleopatra to Egypt, 
gave himself up to the fascinations of her society, and 
conducted himself just as Octavius must have desired 
that he should do; that is, in neglecting his own interests, 
and in disqualifying himself to contend with the future 
emperor of the Romans. The first care of Octavius was 
to get rid of Lepidus, who was then in Sicily, with sev- 
eral legions. This troublesome member of the partner- 
ship set up some pretensions in favour of his own legions, 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 205 

as to the share of the spoils, which gave Octavius an 
opportunity to quarrel with him. Octavius went to Si- 
cily, and in the presence of the soldiers upbraided Lepi- 
dus with his conduct ; and without giving him time to 
reply, seized a standard, and flourished it in the air, and 
called on the legions to adhere to one who knew how to 
reward them. The astonished Lepidus saw himself im- 
mediately deserted ; and his whole army under the com- 
mand of Octavius. Though Lepidus was then Pontifex 
Maximus, he seems to have been an inferior person, and 
introduced into the triumvirate as a convenient third par- 
ty to balance the other two, who were always distrustful 
of each other. Lepidus was glad to compromise with 
Octavius for seclusion and private life. He retired to a 
distant island in the Mediterranean, and is no more heard 
of in Roman history. 

§ 390. One of the most touching uses of despotic power 
recorded in history, is found in the measures pursued by 
Octavius, to reward his veteran legions. The owners 
of the fairest portions of Italy, were driven from their 
estates, that the soldiers of Octavius might enjoy them. 
Mournful suppliants thronged to Rome; women, bearing 
their children in their arms, filled the temples, and pub- 
lic squares, with cries and lamentations. Among the 
dispossessed on this occasion, was the poet Virgil, who 
had an ancient inheritance near the city of Mantua, in 
the north of Italy, whence he is sometimes called the 
Mantuan bard. The interference of Macsenas is said to 
have obtained for him the restoration of his little farm. 
The plaintive lines which are read in the first eclogue 
of the Bucolics, (pastorals) are descriptive of the sorrows 
of Italy, and especially of those of the poet, arising from 
this flagrant exercise of military despotism by one class 
of persons over their own countrymen. The manner 
of Virgil's lamentation may be seen in these words: 

Impius haec tain culta novalia miles habebit? 
Barbarus has sagetes ? En quo discordia cives 
Perduxit miseros ! en quels consevimus agros ! 
Insere nunc, nelibaee, pyros, pone ordine vites: 
Ite meae, felix quondam pecus, ite capellae. 
Non ego vos posthac, viridi projectus in antro 
Dumosa pendere procul de rupe videbo : 

18 



206 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

Carmina nulla canam : non, me pascente, capellae 
Florentem cytisum et salices carpetis amaras. 

Dryden's Translation. 

Did we for these Barbarians ! plant and sow ? 

On these ! on these ! our happy fields bestow ! 

Good heav'n ! what dire effects from civil discord flow ! 

Now let me graft my pears, and prune the vine ; 

The fruit is theirs, the labour only, mine. 

Farewell ! my pastures, my paternal stock, 

My fruitful fields, and my more fruitful flock. 

No more, my goats, shall I behold you climb 

The steepy clifls, or crop the flow'ry thyme ; 

No more, extended in the grot below, 

Shall see you feeding on the mountain's brow 

On prickly shrubs j and after on the bare, 

Lean down the deep abyss, and hang in air. 

No more my sheep shall sip the morning dew. 

No more my song shall please the rural crew. 

Adieu ! my tuneful pipe ! and all the world, adieu ! 

§ 391. Octaviiis having now only Antony to contend 
with, he sought the means of quarrelUng with him, and 
easily found them. Antony, provoked by the conduct 
of Octavius, prepared to meet him as an enemy. Ac- 
companied by Cleopatra, and a retinue of actors, musi- 
cians, and ministers of pleasure, in oriental magnificence, 
he appeared in Asia Minor, and gathered a powerful ar- 
my, and a numerous fleet, and moved over to Greece, 
with the intention of going to Rome, and of chastising 
and deposing Octavius. But the latter did not wait for 
him in Italy. He drew forth his legions, and equipped 
his naval forces, and went to meet his former associate, 
but always his enemy, in Greece. The two armies were 
on the opposite sides of the gulf of Corinth. The two 
fleets came in contact at the western end of this gulf, in 
the Adriatic sea, and near to a promontory, on the north 
side, called Actium. Here occurred the battle of Acti- 
um, between the fleets, the two armies being only spec- 
tators. The fleet of Antony was nearly double in force 
to that of Octavius, and part of it consisted of fifty Egyp- 
tian galleys, furnished by Cleopatra, in one of which 
galleys she had embarked herself. Both Antony and 
Octavius conducted the battle personally, in their respec- 
tive fleets. In the midst of the conflict, Antony perceived 
that Cleopatra, (probably yielding to the feelings natural 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 207 

to her sex ill such a scene) had fled with her galleys, 
and caring more for her, apparently, than for the fate 
of the battle, he fled after her, and thus gave the victory 
to Octavius. This battle occurred on the 2d Sep. in the 
year 31 B. C. The army of Antony, careless whom 
they served, hailed the victor as their chief. 

§ 392. Antony had been revelling in oriental luxury 
in Egypt several years before this battle. He was, in 
effect, the king of Egypt. The splendours of royalty 
had long been familiar to the people of this country. 
They had a kind of property in them ; and were proud 
of them.* The voluptuous Queen, versed in the learn- 
ing of Greece, had the power and the will to robe the 
sensualities to which she was prone, in all the elegant 
conceptions of poetry. What Cleopatra and Antony 
had done, were doing, and intended to do, was occupa- 
tion enough for a whole community. Whether affection 
or interest governed this accomplished female, she was 
fertile in schemes of pleasure to hold Antony in his ser- 
vile adoration. Human ingenuity was never more tho- 
roughly tasked, to detain the zest of enjoyment which 
perishes in the using, or from which familiarity compels 
it to fly. 

§ 393. This fatal illusion was dispelled in a single hour. 
Antony and Cleopatra terrified and disconsolate, perceiv- 
ed that they had fallen from the rank of deities, who 
had favoured the earth with their presence, to the level 
of mortals, who could not find on its surface one place 
of safety or repose. They hastened to Egypt, and there 
exhibited as much of irresolution and weakness, as they 
had shown of contempt for earthly vicissitudes, in their 
years of voluptuous splendour. Octavius was not slow 
in the pursuit. It was now seventeen years since Caesar 
had pursued Pompey to the same shores, and felt, while 
there, that the world was all his own. Octavius was 
to enjoy the same self gratulation, in the same place, 
when Antony should become as harmless as Pom- 
pey. The last hope of Cleopatra, for there was none 

* A subject of the Emperor of Morocco was comparing the lib- 
erty of which Englishmen are so proud, with the better condition 
of men in his own country ; and honestly boasted, that he lived 
in a land, where his glorious master could take any man's head off 
at his pleasure, 



208 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

to Antony, was to try her power of fascination on Octa- 
vius, and bring him to the bondage, which had disgrac- 
ed Caesar. With such design, she obtained an interview 
with Octavius. But this cool, calculating manager, would 
not meet the suppliant glance of Cleopatra, nor permit 
his eyes to encounter the prepared blandishments of her 
person. He kept them fixed on the ground, and by de- 
ceitful assurances, endeavoured to persuade her to live 
and to repose in his generosity. The best measures he 
could devise, were resorted to to put it out of her power 
to die, and so deprive him of this captive Queen, in 
chains, as an ornament of his triumphal entry into 
Rome, as Caesar had graced his triumph with her youth- 
ful sister Arsinoe. But in this he was sadly disappoint- 
ed. She knew him, and Rome and Romans too well, 
to be carried from her own shores alive. By an inge- 
nuity, which escaped the vigilance of Octavius, a small 
serpent, peculiar to Egypt, was conveyed to her, hidden 
in a basket of figs, and with the help of its venomous 
bite, she left Octavius a sincere mourner for her death. 
Antony escaped his conqueror by the use of his own 
sword. After he had given himself a fatal wound, he 
was carried, at his request, to the tower in which Cleo- 
patra had secured herself, and was drawn by herself and 
women, with the help of cords, to a window, and taken 
in, and there pesently expired. Octavius placed this 
remarkable pair, side by side in a monument which 
Cleopatra had previously constructed. Thus Egypt was 
reduced to a province of the Roman Empire ; and thus 
ended the royal race of Ptolemies in this ancient realm, 
wherein they had reigned nearly three centuries. Oc- 
tavius arranged his affairs in the East, and then return- 
ed to Rome, which he entered in magnificent triumph. 
The picture of Cleopatra was borne in the procession, 
as the original had escaped the power of Octavius. 
It might have been expected from the youthful conduct 
of Octavius, and from the savage delight which he then 
seemed to have in the shedding of blood, that the plea- 
sures of his unrestrained authority would have appeared 
in the number of his victims. This did not prove to be 
so. The only persons whom he destroyed, were a son 
of Antony and Fulvia ; and Caesarion a son of Caesar 
and Cleopatra. 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 209 

§ 394. As great battles are a sort of landmarks in his- 
tory, and especially such as are followed by great changes 
in the condition of the< world, it may be worth while again 
to mention the time and place of the three great con- 
flicts which opened the way for Octavius to universal 
empire. All of these were fought on Grecian territory, 
or seas. The first, that of Pharsalia, was fought in the 
middle of Thessaly, at that time called Macedonia, on 
the 12th of May, 48 B. C, between Caesar and Pom- 
pey, 155 miles southwest of Philippi. The second, that 
of Philippi, which place is at the upper or northern end 
of the ^gean sea, now called the Archipelago, 220 
miles west of ancient Byzantium, now Constantinople, 
fought in the year 42 B. C. between Octavius and 
Antony on the one side, and Brutus and Cassius on the 
other. The third, the naval battle of Actium, fought on 
the west side of Greece, at the mouth of the gulf of 
Corinth, about 80 miles southwest of Pharsalia, on the 
2d of September 31 B. C, between Octavius and 
Antony. 



18^ 



210 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 



CHAPTER XXVII. 

Tiie Reign of the Roman Emperors. 

§395. If Gsesar is to be considered the first, then Octa-' 
rius was the second of the emperors. It is, however, com- 
monlj understood by histoiians^ that the imperial gov- 
ernment began with Octavius, for Csesar seemed to have 
intended to be a king. The reign of Octavius is spoken 
of historically, as that of Augustus, which name was 
afterwards given to this person by the senate. The 
name is supposed to imply something sacred, and tc 
have been taken from augury. The name of one of the 
months was taken from Augustus, being that in which 
he died* He was about 32 years of age when he be- 
came Emperor, and he reigned 44. Rome, the seat of 
empire, was then computed to contain 4,063,000 in- 
habitants. His dominions were the richest and most 
extensive that any one man ever controlled. It com- 
prised all Europe, Africa, and Asia, except those parts 
which the barbarians, and the people of the extreme 
east, possessed. The revenues of the empire were of 
the annual value of 180,000,000 of dollars. 

§ 396. From the time that Augustus was thus firmly es- 
tablished in power, no more is heard, during his reign, of 
tumults, seditions, or republicanism. There were many 
wars in the north and west with the barbarians ; and 
there was rarely peace, for centuries, on the eastern 
limits of the empire. But there is neither instruction 
nor pleasure, in following out the detail of these events. 
Who commanded, and how many were slain, on the one 
side or the other, is not a subject of worthy curiosity. 
Time devoted to the history of battles, which led to no 
consequences affecting the condition of mankind, is cer- 
tainly misspent. 

<5 397. Octavius being able to choose what he would 
have, and what he would be, and by what name distin- 
guished, appears to have chosen wisely. The appellation 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 211 

of Imperator (commander) was familiar to the Romans- 
By that name, the soldiers had long been accustomed to 
hail a victorious chief on the field of battle. From- 
that name, the title Emperor was assumed by Augustus,. 
in reference to his command of the armies. It will be 
remembered, that the office of tribune was introduced 
in the Roman government, at an early age, to designate 
an officer whose special duty it was, to protect the tribes 
(Tribumis, a tribe) of the people, from the rapacity or 
tyranny of the nobles. Augustus took the title of tri- 
bune, that he might command the people. He contin- 
ued the senate, but took the title of prince, (first, or 
chief,) that he might preside in, the senate, and control 
the course of legislation. He was, necessarily, master 
of the revenues of the empire. There remained nothing 
to add to these powers, (which included all legislative, 
executive, and supreme judicial power,) but that he 
should shield himself with the title and authority of 
Pontifex Maximus (chief priest) which was another coat 
of mail for his personal security. This title he assum- 
ed after the death of his former associate Lepidus, (who 
was one of the second triumvirate, and who died in ex- 
ile,) before whose death, it seems, it could not be assum- 
ed. Thus he did not, like Csesar, sigh for a crown, but 
quietly possessed himself, in modes which excited no 
alarm or jealousy, of absolute power. It must be ad- 
mitted that he used it well for himself, and beneficially 
for his subjects. Yet, in his care of himself, and in 
providing the means of defence against all seditious and 
rebellious movements, he established a power which 
became sovereign over that which it was formed to pro- 
tect. 

§ 398. Augustus selected the most confidential of his 
legions, and doubled their pay, and gave a part of them 
a place of abode just without the walls of the city, on 
the broad summit of the Quirinal Hill. They were in 
all about sixteen thousand, and are known in future 
Roman history by the name of the praetorian band ; and 
their abode was called the praetorian camp. This pow- 
erful body were attached to him by gifts, by desired dis- 
tinctions, and by the spirit of mutual dependence, which 
naturally grows up between soldiers and their chief. 
They were a faithful protection to his person, while they 



212 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

overawed the senate, and kept the populace in humble 
subjection. He began by having a small portion only, 
of these troops in the praetorian camp. The residue 
were conveniently disposed of in different parts of Italy. 
The number at Rome was gradually increased ; and in 
the reign of his successor, all of them were drawn to 
Rome, and were ever after masters of the empire. 
They exacted of every new emperor a sort of tribute, 
as though he reigned by their authority or permission ; 
and at last, actually sold the empire to the highest 
bidder. 

§ 399. The new emperor was never much inclined to 
gather laurels, where his person would be endangered; 
but is thought to have been deficient in the soldierly 
spirit, which Romans held in the highest esteem. Thus, 
in the battle of Philippi, he kept himself out of harm's 
way, on pretence of being too much indisposed to en- 
gage in battle. To such causes may be referred the 
pacific character of his reign, and his assiduous cultiva- 
tion of peaceful improvements. Hence we hear of the 
Augustan age, as being that in which the arts, sciences, 
and elegant ornaments of social life, flourished. The 
Eternal City became the successor of Alexandria, as 
that was of Athens, in being the seat of intellectual 
empire- In this age^ are found the names of Horace, 
Virgil, Pollio, Maecenas, Strabo, Livy, Tibullus, Ovid, 
and many others. The last named offended the empe- 
ror, and he was banished to the inhospitable region of 
Thrace, a little north of the mouths of the Danube, of 
which lonely exile he makes mournful complaint. This 
was also the age of excessive luxury, though it had yet 
some chastening, from the literary character of the 
times. 

§ 400. Among the constant friends and principal ad- 
visers of Augustus, was Caius Cilneus Maecenas, the 
same, whose name will be. known as long as Horace's 
odes or Virgil's verse are read. He was a rich, well 
informed, luxurious Roman, who loved everything that 
was pleasant to the mind, or to the senses ; but yet was 
capable of assiduous, and continued labour. Augustus 
made him very wealthy, without giving him much dis- 
tinction and responsibility of office, which he does not 
appear to have coveted. A very confidential intercourse 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 213 

was maintained between them. Maecenas tried its char- 
acter severely, at an early period. At the commence- 
ment of the triumvirate, Augustus was on the tribunal 
seat, pronouncing sentence after sentence of death, on 
Roman citizens. Maecenas was a spectator. He ven- 
tured to write on a tablet, and hand to Augustus the 
words, surge, tandem, carnifex ! (Rise, at length, exe- 
cutioner !) The suggestion was kindly taken, and the 
condemnations, for that time, ceased. From policy, 
from improvement of disposition, or from respect for 
the opinions of better men than himself, it is apparent 
that Augustus endeavoured, by his conduct as emperor, 
to remove the odium which accompanied his ascent to 
power. Certainly Rome had not seen so many peace- 
ful happy days, in many centuries, as were seen in the 
reign of Augustus. 

§ 401. For the third time only, since the building of 
the city, now more than 700 years, the temple of Janus 
was closed. Persons thronged to elegant and luxurious 
Rome, from the provinces. The population daily fed 
in Rome, according to some accounts, exceeded one 
third of the present population of the United States, 
that is it was betweeji four and five millions. Gibbon, 
it must be noticed, discredits these accounts of numbers. 
Augustus said he found Rome a city of brick, and should 
leave it a city of marble. At' this time the riches of 
private individuals are astonishing, especially in skilful 
and useful slaves. Many of them were instructed in the 
liberal sciences, and were highly valued for their know- 
ledge in the arts. The most eminent physicians were 
slaves. The degree of luxury may be judged of by the 
number of slaves employed in one dwelling. Four hun- 
dred were executed, because, being the domestic ser- 
vants of a palace, they did not (as it was presumed they 
might) prevent the murder of their master. It was 
common for one person to own as many as 2000 slaves ; 
and some persons owned 4000. Gibbon says, that in 
the reign of Augustus, a person, who was himself a 
freed man, and whose fortunes had been much impaired 
during the civil wars, owned 3600 yoke of oxen, 250,000 
of smaller cattle ; and 4116 slaves. 

^ 402. Something of Roman morals may be discerned 
in the fact, that Augustus divorced Scribonia, his third 



214 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

wife, and compelled Claudius Nero to give up to him, 
his wife Livia. This female was beloved by her new 
husband, if he was capable of feeling such sentiment 
for any one.' She seems to have been little worthy of 
love herself, though she dwelt with Augustus to the end 
of his life, and received his parting sigh. Yet she was 
suspected of hastening his death, to make way for her 
infamous son Tiberius. With all his splendour, this em- 
peror had many afflictions which no splendour can con- 
sole or mitigate. Two grandsons, whom he intended as 
successors, and a favourite son of Livia, by Clodius, 
whom he also so intended, died young. His own daugh- 
ter Julia, was so profligate and infamous, that he was 
compelled to exile, and abandon her. He had no re- 
source but to leave his empire to Tiberius, a son of 
Livia, whom he knew to be a bad man, and unfit to be 
trusted with power. Emperors cannot look into futurity 
more certainly than common men can. But Augustus 
supposed, that by making a testamentary provision, 
his wisdom and influence might be felt in the govern- 
ment, though he must be personally withdrawn from it. 
He directed, among other things, that no attempt should 
be made to extend the Hmits of the empire. 

^ 403. Finding his strength departing he took a jour- 
ney through Campania, and went to attend the games 
at Naples ; but without' recruiting; and having arrived 
at the ancient city of Nola, on the way from Naples to 
Rome, he died there, in the month of August A. D. 14, 
in the 76th year of his age, and 44th of his reign. Per- 
ceiving that his career was closing, he asked those 
around him (in theatrical phrase) whether he had play- 
ed bis part well ? — and being assured that he had, he 
replied in the manner of an actor retiring from the stage, 
valete! plaudite! (Farewell! applaud me!) In refer- 
ence to the beginning and to the end of this man's life, 
it was said of bim, *It would have been good for man- 
kind, if he had never been born, or had never died.' 

§ 404. In Elton's history of the Roman emperors, the 
person of Augustus is described as comely, and well 
proportioned ; of middle stature ; his nose aquiline; eye- 
brows meeting ; complexion fair ; hair slightly curled, 
and inclining to yellow ; teeth a little straggling, and 
uneven ; eyes clear and brilliant. He had the vanity to 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 215 

be pleased if any one looked down, as though dazzled 
by his fixed gaze. His countenance had a serene ex- 
pression. It is said of him, that he indulged privately 
in any sort of vice, without scruple, but was outwardly 
religious and exemplary. He was not luxurious at 
table, but rather abstemious. The amusement derived 
from buffoons, dancers, and story tellers, was not indif- 
ferent to him. Habitual industry was one of his quali- 
ties. He was exceedingly superstitious, and had great 
dread of thunder and lightning ; as a protection, he 
wore a seal skin next his body ; and retired, during a 
thunder storm, to a subterraneous apartment. In win- 
ter, he wore a woollen throat muffler and stomacher, and 
rollers for his legs. In summer, his bed was placed in 
an open portico, near a fountain, and he was fanned 
while sleeping. Thus, it seems, that the analysis of an 
emperor, even the best of them, brings him down, at 
last, to the common level of mankind. 

<^ 405. Rome, no doubt, very sincerely mourned the 
loss of Augustus ; and if Romans could have known 
what was to come next, their grief might well have 
been intense. They numbered their deceased mortal 
among the gods ; temples and altars were consecrated 
to him. He was buried with the utmost magnificence, 
in a mausoleum prepared by himself. It has been said 
that one of the beautiful relics of ancient grandeur, 
called the Rotunda or Pantheon, which still adorns 
Rome, in good preservation, was built by Agrippa, for 
the tomb of Augustus. This was undoubtedly a work 
of Agrippa, and built in the time of Augustus, and pro- 
bably in honour of him ; as Agrippa was son in law, 
military chief, constant friend, and faithful adviser, of 
the emperor. At one time, the opinions of this friend, 
and of Maecenas, were asked, seriously or deceitfully, 
whether it would be best for him (Augustus) to abdicate 
his power, and restore the republic. Agrippa advised 
him to do so ; but Maecenas was of a different opinion ; 
and was probably sagacious enough to discern what 
opinion would be most acceptable. 

'^ 406. The qualities, the motives, and the acts of Au- 
gustus, have been much discussed, and various opinions 
have been expressed. The elements which make up 
that compound called character, may appear very dif- 



216 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

ferent to different observers ; and though there may be 
strong traits, which undergo Uttle change, even in a long 
life, yet, the very different circumstances in which a man 
is seen in the course of life, almost shake one's belief in 
his identity. No two men could differ more than young 
Octavius, and old Augustus. In contemplating the ad- 
ministration of this person, one rather feels gratified 
that he did no worse, than respectful towards him, that 
he did so well. Whatever good he may have done, the 
impression cannot be effaced, that he was an unfeeling 
and selfish conspirator, in early life, against the best 
men in Rome ; and afterwards, a perfidious member of 
a vile and abominable partnership, instituted for the 
purpose of crushing the liberty of his country, and rais- 
ing on the ruins, a bloody and relentless tyranny. The 
summing up his qualities by Gibbon, will probably be 
assented to by most persons who think Augustus worth 
studying. * A cool head, an unfeeling heart, and a cow- 
ardly disposition, prompted him, at the age of nineteen, 
to assume the mask of hypocrisy, which he never after- 
wards laid aside. His virtues, and even his vices, were 
artificial ; and according to the various dictates of his 
interest, he was at first the enemy, and at last, the Fa- 
ther of the Roman world,' 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 217 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 

From the death of Augustus. A. D 14, to the death of Constantine 
the Great, A. D. 337. 

§ 407. In the long, and comparatively tranquil reign 
of Augustus, an opportunity seems to have occurred for 
reforming the constitutional powers of government, and 
preventing the calamities which are presently to be no- 
ticed. This would have been an achievement worthy of 
the high authority to which this emperor had attained. 
Whether such a measure was or was not practicable, 
can be imperfectly judged of, through the mists of ages. 
No attempt to this efl'ect appears to have been made, 
and the empire was left to its destiny. It resembled a 
man of vigorous physical power, and of elevated intel- 
lect, but depraved heart, contending with fatal disease ; 
sometimes arresting the approach of the final catastro- 
phe by manly efforts, but more commonly hurrying it 
onward by excessive follies and crimes. 

§ 408. The causes of ' the decline and fall' are ob- 
vious. From the earliest times, Italy was threatened 
by the northern barbarians. There was no alternative 
but to conquer them or submit to them. Hence, power- 
ful armies were always embodied to contend in the ter- 
ritories, which were known under the name of Gaul. 
The legions employed in these wars, were as formidable 
to Rome, as to its enemies. The love of conquest, the 
spoils of war, the triumphal entry into Rome, made 
military fame the passion of the Romans. When their 
armies ceased to be made up of citizens, (which occur- 
red when they were first sent beyond the shores of Italy) 
and mercenary troops were relied on, Rome began to 
prepare for itself the miseries, which were afterwards 
experienced. The almost incredible wealth and popu- 
lation of Rome, the measures taken by rich aspirants 
to power, in splendid spectacles, popular entertainments, 
and lavish gifts ; the prostitution of religious worship, 
19 



218 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

the absence of all moral sense, and the universal de- 
pravity of all parts of the empire, but especially in the 
Great City, are the true causes of the convulsions in 
which the mightiest power that the world has ever seen, 
closed its existence. 

§ 409. At the death of Augustus, the population of 
Rome comprised the rich and noble who were senators, 
knights, tribunes, military chiefs, and soldiers by profes- 
sion ; and a poor, idle, ignorant, seditious multitude. 
Among these classes the passions of jealousy, envy, rival- 
ry, and ambition, were in full action with the aid of 
perfidy, cunning, and every form of malice and selfish- 
ness. A craving, idle population, who still assumed the 
sovereignty of physical force, were fit machinery to be 
used by the upper classes. A prodigious number of 
slaves gathered from all conquered countries were smart- 
ing under servitude. Over all these elements presided 
an executive power terrible in its action from the very 
nature of the community over which it ruled. Deplora- 
ble as this state of things appears to be, still it may 
have been possible so to re-organize and constitute the 
government, as to have saved the world from the mise- 
ries which followed the death of Augustus. If not, then 
the serious question arises, whether it be the will of the 
Creator that the successive nations of the earth must 
begin, go on, and expire in convulsions as all have hith- 
erto been seen to do, and as it is now to be seen, was 
also the destiny of Rome. 

§ 410. From the death of Augustus to the year 328 
when Constantine the great removed the seat of gov- 
ernment from Rome to ancient Byzantium, and gave it 
the name of Constantinople, by which it is now known, 
is a space comprising 314 years. In this time there 
were about fifty emperors. The events which occurred 
in these 314 years are found in many books of history. 
A part of the elaborate and elegant work of Gibbon, — 
(Decline and Fall of the Roman empire) is devoted 
to this time. It would be as painful as unprofitable 
to follow out these details if it were consistent with the 
elementary character of these sketches. All that seems 
to be expedient is to show the succession of emperors, 
and to select some events worth noticing. 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 



219 



Names. Beginning 


of reign. 


Lenj 


»th of reign, 


. Kind of death. Ag 


e at death. 




A.b. 


y- 


m. 


d. 






Tiberius, 


14 


22 


7 


7 


Murdered. 


78. 


Caligula, 


37 


3 


10 


8 


C( 


29. 


Claudius, 


41 


13 


8 


20 


i( 


64. 


Nero, 


54 


13 


8 




Suicide. 


32. 


Galba, 


68 


7 






Murdered. 


73. 


Otho, 


69 




3 




Suicide. 


37. 


Vilellius, 


69 




8 


2 


Murdered. 


75. 


Vespasian, 


69 


9 


6 


2 


Died natural death. 


70. 


Titus, 


79 


2 


8 




Do. perhaps poisoned 


. 41. 


Domitian, 


81 


15 


6 


5 


Murdered. 


45. 


Nerva, 


96 


1 


4 


9 


Died natural death. 


72. 


Trajan, 


98 


19 


6 


16 


(( 


67. 


Adrian, 


117 


20 


10 


29 


« 


62. 


Antoninus Pius, 


138 


22 


7 


27 


<c 


73. 


Marcus Aurelius and 














Lucius Verus,* 


161 


19 


8 




(C 


59. 


Commodus, 


180 


12 


9 




Murdered. 


31. 


Pertinax, 


192 




3 




a 


67. 


Didius JulianuSjt 


192 






26 


ii 1 


Uncertain. 


Severus, 


193 


17 


8 


3 


Doubtful. 


65. 


Caracalla and 


211 


6 


2 


4 


Murdered, having 


29. 


Geta, 










murdered Geta. 




Macrinus, 


217 


1 


1 


26 


Murdered. 


54. 


Heleogabalus, 


218 


3 


9 


4 


(C 


18. 


Alex. J^everus, 


222 


13 


9 




(( 


29. 


lHaximin,! 


235 


2 


7 




(C 


65. 


Papienus and 














Balbinus, 


238 


1 






" 1 


Uucertaiu. 


Gordian f. 


238 


Very short. 


Suicide. 


cc 


Gordian TI, 


238 




C( 




Murdered. 


a 


Gordian III, 


238 


6 






« 


a 


Philip and Sons, 


244 


5 






(( 


45. 


Decius, 


249 


2 






Suicide. 


50. 


Galliis and 














Hostilianus, 


251 


Few weeks. 


Uncertain. 1 


Uncertain. 


Volusianus, 


251 




« 




Murdered. 


« 


^melianus. 


251 




li 




<< 


c< 


Valerianus, 


253 


7 






Flayed alive in Parthia, 
and his skin tanned. 


a 


Gallienus, 


257 


8 






Murdered. 


49. 


30 Tyrants, 




At 


same time. 


Various deaths. 




Claudius II, 


268 


1 


10 


12 


Died natural death. 


57. 


Aurelian, 


270 


5 


11 


9 


Murdered. 


61. 


Tacitus, 


276 




6 


20 


Died natural death. 


76. 


Probus, 


276 


6 


4 




Murdered. 


50. 


Carus and Sons, 


282 


2 






C. killed by lightning 
sons murdered. 


j 


Numerianus, 


283 


Uncertain. 


Murdered. Uncertain. 


Carinus,. 


283 




(C 




(( 


ii 


Dioclesian, and 














Maximian, 


284 


18 




R 


esigned, D. poisoned him- 



Galerius, Constantius, & 

Others, 297 3 

Constantine the Great, 306 31 



self, M. was strangled. 

G. murdered. " 

C. died at York in Eng. 50. 

Natural death. 63. 



* Verus, a profligate person, died in the lifetime of Marcus A. 

I D. J. was a rich lawyer, (Gibbon says, senator) who was sitting at dinner when 
he heard that the praetorian band had offered the empire for sale. He ran and pur- 
chased for about 450,000 dollars, and the vendors put him to death before the month 
was cut. 

X " Son of a shepherd in Thrace ; 8 feet 4 inches tall. His wife's bracelet would 
just go on to his thumb. He could grind pebbles into dust with his thumb and fin- 
gers. He could strike out a horse's teeth with a blow of his fist, and bieak his leg 
with a kick." (Elton's Roman Emperors.) 



220 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

§ 411. The state of the empire may be inferred from 
the rapid succession of emperors, and the kind of death 
which befell most of them. The minute details of these 
times show that thousands and thousands of men, wo- 
men and children perished in all the variety of modes 
which unrestrained power and the worst passions of the 
human heart could suggest. In short it was a period of 
vice, crime, and depravity, to which riches and intelli- 
gence gave their utmost aid ; and when all the means 
which are permitted to mankind to secure peace and 
happiness were ingeniously perverted to make them 
utterly miserable. Out of this degradation no earthly 
power could raise the human family. Those who be- 
lieve in divine revelation must see that if ever there 
could be a time when that revelation was indispensable, 
that time had come. It was necessarily long before its 
reforming influences could be generally felt. 

§ 412. The peculiarities of some of these emperors 
may be worth noticing, and some of the events of their 
times are interesting at the present day. Tiberius was 
old when he began to reign. The last seven years of 
his life he spent at the Isle of Caprsea, a few miles 
southwest of Naples. He left the government to be 
managed by a favourite named Sejanus, of infamous 
memory. After the age of 70 to the time of his death, 
he gave himself to the most odious debaucheries, and 
amused himself with having all persons whom, for any 
cause, he was displeased with, or whom his favourite was 
displeased with, brought to Caprsea and murdered in 
the most torturing modes of death, of which pastime he 
was usually a spectator. He heard that a Roman had 
whispered in the ear of a dead man to tell Augustus that 
his legacies to the Roman people had not been paid. 
Tiberius sent for this person, paid him, then put him to 
death by torture, telling him to inform Augustus that one 
Roman had been paid. In the nineteenth year of this 
monster the Saviour was crucified. 

§413. Caligula was another monster. Some of his 
atrocities were so strange that it was doubted whether 
he was not insane. He married his own sister Drusilla. 
When she died he assigned to her the rank of a god- 
dess. He put every one to death who expressed before 
him any sorrow for her, because she had become a god- 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 221 

dess ; and those also who expressed pleasure at her new 
elevation, because they did not grieve with him for his 
loss. He supposed that he was visited, nightly, by a hid- 
eous sea monster. He expressed a wish that the Roman 
people had but one neck, so that he could put them all 
to death by one blow. He daily made out a list of per- 
sons to be killed, under the heads 'sword,' ' dagger,' and 
he kept a chest of poisons. A favourite female acciden- 
tally saw this list, and finding her own, and other names 
there, she concerted with them his own destruction. 

§ 414. Claudius was a silly old man, uncle of Caligula. 
The tumult which arose in the palace on the murder 
of his nephew, led him to hide himself behind the lining 
of a passage-way. Some soldiers discovered him there, 
from seeing his feet ; they took him on their shoulders, 
and carried him to the praetorian camp, and proclaimed 
him emperor. His wife, Messalina, married a young 
Roman, in his life-time, and celebrated the nuptials with 
great splendour. His minister of iniquity, Narcissus, 
(who called himself ' Lord of his Lord,') informed him 
of Messalina's adventures, whereupon he ordered her and 
her lover to be killed. But this event made so little im- 
pression upon him, that he expressed his surprise, next 
day, that his wife did not come to dinner. He next mar- 
ried his niece, Agrippina, who gave him poison in a 
mushroom ; and finding that this did not operate fast 
enough, she thrust a poisoned feather down his throat. 

§ 415. The most ridiculous, contemptible, and wicked 
monster, that ever appeared in the world, was Nero. It 
is remarkable, that he had the eminently wise and virtu- 
ous Seneca for a preceptor, and the truly respectable 
Burrhus, the friend of Seneca, for his preetorian prefect ; 
both of whom he put to death. He set himself up for a 
charioteer, a hero, a poet, and musician. He required 
his subjects to attend his exhibitions of himself. If any 
one, through weariness, or from any other cause, left the 
place of exhibition, he ordered instant death. He made 
the circuit of Italy and Greece, as a singer, and return- 
ing to Naples, had a hole made in the wall to enter, in 
imitation of the victors at the Olympic games, who so 
entered their cities on returning, in the complimentary 
fiction, that a city had no need of walls, which had such 
a citizen to defend it. He returned to Rome in triumph, 
19* 



222 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

with hosts of musicians, and cars full of musical instnr- 
ments, in his train. In one of his musical exhibitions in 
Greece, he magnanimously invited any one who thought 
he could equal him, to appear and make trial. A distin- 
guished singer was so poor a politician as to make the 
experiment, and thinking very truly that he far surpassed 
the emperor, refused to yield the palm ; whereupon his 
rival ordered him to be killed upon the spot. 

<^ 416. Such things are not worth noticing, for any oth- 
er purpose than to disclose the general depravity of the 
Romans. The atrocious cruelty of Nero is seen in other 
acts which are interesting. In his time occurred the first 
persecution of the Christians, during which, St Paul was 
crucified at Rome, in the year 66. Nero had them cloth- 
ed with the skins of wild beasts, and worried to death by 
dogs. He also had them nailed up in the form of a cross, 
and covered with combustible matter, and burnt in his 
sumptuous gardens, to serve as lamps. The list of his 
private atrocities would fill a volume. Among other acts, 
he ordered his own mother to be stabbed, who, seeing 
the assassins approach, opened her bosom, and bid them 
strike there ; ' for this,' said she, ' gave birth to a mon- 
ster.' The whole world was, at length, weary of him. 
He was gradually deserted by every one, from contempt, 
or terror, except three or four domestics. One of them, 
called Phaon, invited him to retire to his country seat, 
four miles from Rome. There he secreted himself in an 
out building\ It being necessary to dispatch him, to 
make way for somebody else, assassins were sent to do 
it. Hearing their approach, he made a characteristic 
thrust at his own throat, with the help of a slave, exclaim- 
ing, ' what an artist is the world about to lose !' What 
a state must the world have been in, to permit such a 
miscreant as this to live in it thirty-two years, and thir- 
teen of them in the place of an emperor ! 

§ 417. Vespasian is the person to whom the prophecies 
concerning the Messiah were applied, and particularly 
because he was employed in Judea, as a Roman general, 
when this subject was one of much interest. They car- 
ried it so far as to insist, that he restored sight to a blind 
man, and soundness to a cripple. This emperor proved 
to be a wise and honest man. The only thing urged 
against him, is the means which he took to replenish the 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 223 

treasury, exhausted, as it must have been, by the acts 
of his predecessors. He left his son, Titus, to prosecute 
the siege of Jerusalem. Judea was then in a state of re- 
volt. On the 7th of September, in the year 70, on the 
sabbath day of the Jews, that city was taken with terri- 
ble sacrifice of life. The number of prisoners is stated 
at 97,000, and 1,100,000 are said to have perished in the 
siege. Some opinion may be formed of the sufferings 
of the besieged, if the story is true, that a woman killed 
and cooked her own child for food, and set aside a part 
of it, for a second repast. The contempt for the Jews 
was such, that their city was utterly destroyed, and ' not 
one stone was left upon another.' A plough was passed 
over the site of the magnificent temple of Jerusalem. 

§ 418. Titus succeeded his father. He is represented 
to have been one of the most able and excellent of men. 
He was called 'the delight of mankind.' In his short 
reign, (79 — 81) dreadful calamities occurred. In this 
time, there was a tremendous eruption of Mount Vesu- 
vius, (79) in which the towns of Herculaneum and Pom- 
peii were destroyed. The celebrated Pliny, surnamed 
the Elder, now known by his scientific works, and ele- 
gant epistles, perished in attempting to satisfy his philo- 
sophical curiosity. A most scourging pestilence followed 
the irruption ; and then a fire that raged for three days 
in Rome, in which theatres and temples were destroyed, 
and also the library, gathered in the time of Augustus, to 
which the name of Octavia was given. Titus employed 
the captive Jews, (10,000 of them,) in building the vast 
amphitheatre, (which still remains, among the monu- 
ments of ancient grandeur,) capable of containing 100,- 
000 spectators. It is now known by the name of the 
Colisseum. Titus was sincerely lamented by the Romans. 
There are many fine sayings attributed to Titus. When 
dying, he drew back the curtains of his couch, and look- 
ing towards the skies, said, 'I have committed but one 
act of which I need repent.' What he alluded to, is un- 
known. His brother, Domitian, was suspected of having 
caused his death. 

§ 419. Domitian, though the brother of Titus, was by 
his nature and conduct, the brother of Tiberius, Caligu- 
la, and Nero. His principal pastime is said to have been 
to catch flies, and pin them down upon a table. The 



224 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

acts of his tyranny are numerous, and those of his follies 
likewise ; and even his courtesies were terrible. He 
would sometimes alarm his guests with the fear of instan- 
taneous destruction, by the sudden coming in of gladia- 
tors, who departed without causing any thing but terror; 
or of wild beasts, whose claws and teeth had been ex- 
tracted. And yet, he caused some splendid buildings to 
be erected, and added to the volumes of libraries. 

<o> 420. The only things worth mentioning of Nerva are, 
that he removed the severe taxes imposed upon the Jews, 
and recalled the Christians from banishment, and inter- 
dicted the prosecution of them. About this time, 98, the 
Evangelist St John returned from his long continued 
banishment in the isle of Patmos. Nerva enacted that 
no senator should be put to death. A senator, Culpur- 
nius, having conspired against him, he adhered to the 
law, and inflicted only banishment. 

§ 421. In the time of Trajan, (98 — 117) the third per- 
secution of the Christians occurred. Pliny the younger, 
who was son of the elder Pliny's sister, and who was the 
adopted son and heir of the elder Pliny, had received 
the best education. Tacitus, the historian, and the young- 
er Pliny, were cotemporaries, and affectionate friends, 
as well as the two most eloquent men of their day. It is 
much to the praise of Trajan, that two such men were 
in favour with him. Both were of consular rank. When 
the edict to renew the persecution of the Christians came 
forth, Pliny was governor of Bithynia, a province situ- 
ated in the north-western part of Asia Minor. When the 
edict reached him, he wrote to the emperor to instruct 
him how to proceed. He tells the emperor, that the 
lives and manners of the Christians were blameless; and 
that after the most diligent inquiry he could find nothing 
against them, but that 'they bound themselves, by an 
oath, to temperance and charity, and sang hymns to 
Christ, as to a God.' After this, all inquisition into the 
opinions of Christians was prohibited.* On the whole, 
history speaks most respectably of Trajan. There are 

* See the compilation entitled, History of the Roman Emperors, 
by Charles A. Eltonj author of specimens and biographical notices 
of the classic poets. London. 1825, An instructive and well writ- 
ten book. 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 225 

some monuments in Rome, among its ancient ruins, 
which were the work of this emperor. 

§ 422. In Adrian's reign, the fourth persecution of the 
Christians octurred. (117 — 138.) The Jews, indig- 
nant at the conduct of Adrian, revolted, and he made Ju- 
dea a desert. One rarely encounters so singularly mixed 
a character as was that of Adrian. He spent seven years 
in traversing his empire. Neither the most intense cold, 
nor the most oppressive heat, interrupted his progress. 
He was an accomplished scholar, and a familiar writer. 
He was a severe soldier ; irascible and vindictive ; but a 
patron of learning, and of learned men. He died of a 
lingering and painful disease ; and often besought his at- 
tendants to end his sufferings by poison, or the sword. 
When he found death approaching, he is said to have re- 
peated, joyfully, the following lines, of his own compo- 
sition : — 

Animula vagula blandula, 
Hospes, comesque corporis ; 
Quae nunc abibis in loca ? 
Palludila, rigida, nudula, 
Nee, ut soles, dabes jocos. 

The following is Alexander Pope's translation: — 

Oh ! fleeting spirit, wandering fire, 
That long has warm'd my tender breast, 
Wilt thou, no more, my frame inspire ? 
No more a pleasing cheerful guest ? 
Whither, ah ! whither art thou flying, 
To what dark undiscover'd shore ? 
Thou seem'st all trembling, shivering, dying, 
And wit and humour are no more. 

If Adrian had listened to those whom he persecutedy he 
could have given himself a consolatory answer to his 
question, 

Quse nunc abibis in loca .'' 

Elton, before named, considers these verses to have been 
Adrian's, composed on his death bed, and gives a trans- 
lation much more in the spirit of the original. 

What, my sprite ! my dainty one, 
Trembling on tip-toe, to be gone .'' 



226 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

Many a day this body's guest, 

Old companion, dearest, best ! 

Where will be thy port of rest ? 

What strange coasts wilt thou discover ? 

Is it thou ! poor pallid thing, * 

Naked, stark, and shivering ? 

Where now thy jibes ? Thy jests are over. 

§ 423. Antoninus Pius reigned from 138 to 16L It 
may be supposed that Christianity had now entitled it- 
self to some respect. He wrote letters prohibiting the 
persecution of Christians. His life was one of personal 
honour, and public usefulness. He was his own minis- 
ter, and indefatigable in the public service. Every part 
of his empire felt the benefit of his power, and especially 
Rome. The senate dedicated a temple to his memory. 
Thus Rome might still have continued to flourish, if there 
had been any means of selecting worthy rulers. Aure- 
lius, his successor, was a very humble imitator of Anto- 
ninus, in what was worthy ; very different from him in 
many respects. He renewed the persecution of the Chris- 
tians. Polycarpus, born at Smyrna, and a bishop there, 
and supposed to have been a disciple of St John, while 
an exile at Patmos, perished by order of Aurelius, in 167. 
So also did Justin, who was born in Palestine, and con- 
verted from the Platonic philosophy. He is called one 
of the Greek fathers of the church, and commonly Justin 
the Martyr. He met his fate in Egypt. Aurelius is sup- 
posed to have been poisoned by his infamous son. Corn- 
modus, of whom it is enough to say, that he was another 
Nero; and who seems to have been ingenious enough to 
surpass him in follies and crimes. Rome relapsed into 
anarchy and confusion at his death, which strikingly re- 
sembled that of Domitian. The successor of Commodus, 
Severus, was born near Tripoli, in Africa. He was a 
mere soldier, and engaged all his reign in wars. He was 
a long time in England, and died at York, A.D. 211. He 
built a turreted wall there, to defend England from the 
inhabitants of Scotland. Caracalla was another Com- 
modus. He put his brother Geta to death, and after an 
odious course of crime and folly, was stabbed by a com- 
mon soldier. 

§ 424. Heliogabalus seems to have concentrated in 
himself all the crimes and follies of his most odious pre- 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 227 

decessors. He contrived to excel them in one thing ; 
he sacrificed the finest youths of the first famihes, to 
read in their entrails his own destiny. Jews, Christians, 
and Romans were required to worship him as a God. 
It is not supposed that gluttony (as has been said) was 
one of his vices. His principal passion was to pass 
for a woman. He imitated the most profligate of that 
sex, in beautifying his person, and even went so far as 
to be regularly married as a bride. When he was slain 
his body was dragged through the city with a hook, and 
thrown into the Tiber. This was considered the most 
ignominious mode of disposing of a malefactor. (A. D. 
222.) 

§ 425. During all this time the northern barbarians, 
and the Parthians in the square of Asia, were constantly 
encroaching on the Romans, and sparing no exertion to 
free their territories from them. Alexander Severus 
spent his reign mostly in warfare with them. There is 
nothing to mention during several successive reigns but 
the natural action of a great empire falling into ruins. 
At every new succession an army in some quarter would 
set up an emperor ; and at one time there were six empe- 
rors. These changes and chances brought up once in a 
while, a person of some ability, as was the case in Aure- 
lian, who reigned in the years 270 — 275. 

§ 426. Distant provinces perceiving the tottering state 
of the Roman empire, assumed independence. This 
was so at Palmyra, the city in the desert which Solomon 
is supposed to have built. It was 230 miles northeast 
of Jerusalem, and about 180 northeast from Tyre, which 
was on the east shore of the Mediterranean. Here 
dwelt the celebrated queen Zenobia, who was a lineal 
descendant from Cleopatra. She resembled Cleopatra, 
but not in profligacy. She had eminent qualities, which 
the Egyptian queen had not. With the delicacy and 
attraction of oriental beauty, she had the heart and the 
hardihood of an able general. In her festivals she ex- 
hibited ' the goblets of gold set with precious stones 
which had touched the lips of Cleopatra.'* In military 
affairs she did not trust to lieutenants, but on horseback 
accompanied her army, and shared in their toils and 

* So says Elton. 



228 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

perils. She had for a minister Dionysius Cassius Lon- 
ginus, the celebrated Greek philosopher, who taught 
Greek at Athens. He is spoken of with highest praise 
for his critical remarks on ancient authors. The only 
work of his now known is his treatise on the sublime. 

§ 427. Aurelian proceeded to the East, to reduce Ze- 
nobia to submission. She met him, and a severe battle 
ensued. It is painful to add, that Aurelian was victori- 
ous ; that in breaking into Palmyra, Longinus was sac- 
rificed by the brutality of Aurelian's soldiers ; and that 
the heroic Zenobia was overtaken in her flight, and re- 
duced to the misery of a captive, to a despot of a crumb- 
ling empire. The soldiery were clamorous for her death, 
but Aurelian held her for another destiny. This gallant 
lady is thought to have been a convert to Christianity. 
By the aid of that belief, or from the far inferior one 
of the philosophy which Longinus may have taught, she 
endured her fortunes with honourable magnanimity. She 
walked at the chariot wheels of Aurelian, in his triumphal 
entry into Rome. It is related that he compelled her to 
move with such a weight of golden chains and fetters, 
and so loaded with precious stones, as to require the aid 
of her Persian attendants, in bearing her burdens ; and 
that her weariness and exhaustion often compelled her 
to stop. It was usual with the Romans, to send illustri- 
ous captives to the executioner, after they had been drag- 
ged through the city in triumph. It is some relief, in 
this sad tale, that such was not Zenobia's fate. She was 
permitted to retire to a villa on the banks of the Tiber, 
and to lead there the life of a Roman matron. She was 
the wMdow of Odenatus, and assumed the sovereignty on 
his death. She had a son, and daughters. The son was 
allowed to retire to Armenia, where Aurelian bestowed 
on him a small principality. Her daughters were mar- 
ried into distinguished families in Rome. This is the 
last that is known in history of the Macedonian race of 
Ptolemies, who reigned for three centuries in Egypt. 

§ 428. From 275 to 306. In this space of thirty years, 
the state of the empire was such, from the incursions 
of barbarians, and from the assumption of sovereignty by 
military chiefs, as to require the association of two em- 
perors; and also the adoption of heirs to the emperors, 
under the name of Caesars. Persons, whether sons of the 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 229 

reigning emperors, or not, were so adopted, in order to 
have capable and confidential supporters. Thus, in 285 
Dioclesian appears associated with Maximin. Each of 
them had their Caesars. Constantius Chlorus sustained 
this relation to Dioclesian. To bring the seat of power 
nearer to the enemy, Maximin took up his abode at 
Milan, in the north of Italy, and Dioclesian at Nico- 
media, a city in Asia Minor, about fifty miles southeast 
of Constantinople. The latter instituted the tenth per- 
secution of the Christians, and continued it with unre- 
lenting severity, for ten years. They had now become 
very numerous, and had all already exerted a powerful 
influence on social life. Among the effects of these per- 
secutions, was that of driving Christians into remote 
parts of the empire, and even beyond its limits, among 
the barbarians, so that some of the barbarian tribes, (so 
called,) when they finally overran Italy and Europe, 
were found to have been sincerely converts. 

<^ 429. An extraordinary event occurred with these 
two emperors. After having conquered their enemies, 
within and without the empire, they met, and made a 
splendid triumphal entry into Rome, and immediately 
afterwards resigned the imperial dignity, and retired to 
private life. Maximin afterwards attempted to reinstate 
himself, was defeated, and strangled. Dioclesian, in his 
old age, apprehensive of evil from the jealousy of the 
then emperor, put an end to his life by poison. There 
were several emperors in different parts of the empire in 
these few years ; among others, Constantius Chlorus es- 
tablished himself in England, and died at York, in 306. 
He was the father of the Great Constantine, who suc- 
ceeded him, and who changed the condition of the em- 
pire, I. By embracing Christianity, or pretending to do 
so. 2. By removing the seat of government from Rome 
to Byzantium, to which he gave his own name, and which 
has ever since been called Constantinople. This occur- 
red 328. It was said, that while Constantine was pro- 
ceeding to Rome, to give battle to one who called him- 
self emperor there, a luminous cross appeared above the 
sun, towards the close of day, which was clearly seen by 
his army, and that he thenceforward bore the sign of the 
cross on his banners. But it is also said, that his army 
was composed mostly of Christians, whom he expected 
20 



230 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

to attach to his interests, the more firmly, by this meas- 
ure. 

i^* 430. However this may be. Christians were no more 
molested after this time, for many years. They were 
received into favour, and became officers of the empire, 
and were treated with the greater respect and confidence, 
because they were Christians. But hardly had persecu- 
tion ceased on the part of their pagan adversaries, before 
it began among themselves, in bitter factions. Among 
other events of that day, was the celebrated council of 
Nice, in 325, at which Constantine was personally pre- 
sent, among three hundred and eighteen bishops, and a 
multitude of ecclesiastics, of other rank. At this coun- 
cil, questions on doctrines were discussed during two 
months ; and much the same sort of questions have been 
discussed, with like zeal, from that day to this. Athana- 
sius, then deacon, and afterwards bishop of Alexandria, 
and Arius, then presbyter of Alexandria, were the op- 
posing champions of this celebrated council. (Nice is in 
Asia Minor, about seventy miles southeast of Constan- 
tinople.) 

<5t 431. Constantine adorned Constantinople with what- 
soever he chose to take from Italy, Greece, and other 
parts of his empire, and soon made it a magnificent city, 
while Rome gradually lost its importance. The seat 
of empire attracted to itself the rich, the powerful, the 
luxurious, and the timid. Gibbon has drawn the char- 
acter of Constantine, with the hand of a master. He al- 
lows to him great qualities as a warrior and statesman; 
and elegant qualities as a man, and respectable accom- 
plishments as a scholar. But he charges him with crimes 
and cruelties ; and especially towards his own son, whom 
(as Gibbon thinks) he put to death, from envy and jeal- 
ousy of the popular affiection. But other writers assign 
other reasons. It seems to be admitted, that in his de- 
cline, he assumed an oriental magnificence in personal 
decoration, which ill became a great man, for such he 
was, or had been. In the last year of his life, he under- 
took a war against the Parthians, (the unceasing enemy 
of Romans for centuries,) and died at Nicomedia, in the 
year 337, in the sixty-fourth year of his age. 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 231 



CHAPTER XXIX. 

From the death of Constantine, 337, to the destruction of the Roman 
empire in Italy, by the barbarians, in 476, including one hundred 
and thirty-nine years. 

§ 432. Three sons of Constantine, nearly of the same 
name, were jointly his successors. When their race was 
'run, Julian, usually called the Apostate, succeeded in 
361. The great importance which Christianity, or more 
properly christian controversies, had assumed, have made 
the life and conduct of this person, a subject of abundant 
commentary. On the one hand, it is said he was a con- 
vert, and then returned to the Greek worship ; and that 
on his way to the old occupation of the Romans, (fight- 
ing the Parthian s,) he shed so much bullock's blood in 
sacrifices, it was feared that the means of offering such 
worship would soon be exhausted. On the other hand, 
it is said that he could not be an apostate, for he had 
never been a Christian. It is not important, at this day, 
to settle whether a Roman emperor of the fourth century 
was a hypocrite or a Christian. There is no difference 
of opinion on another point, that having in a very un- 
military hardihood found himself on the banks of the Ti- 
gris, in the year 363, he was there perforated by a spear, 
and finished his course, at the age of thirty-one. 

§ 433. His successor, Jovian, died on his way to meet 
the Parthians, suffocated in a sleeping room by charcoal. 
The only fact worth noticing of him is, that he published 
an edict of universal toleration. Among the rapid suc- 
cession of emperors came Theodosius the Great, who 
reigned from 379 to 395. This person is spoken of re- 
spectfully by historians. He was an over-zealous Chris- 
tian. It was this emperor who caused the destruction 
of the Alexandrian library, in his exertions to annihilate 
heathen worship. In his reign, history begins to speak 
of the Catholics^ as a class of Christians. He died at 
Milan, of dropsy, in 395. Between his death and the year 
403, the Roman empire was divided into East and West 



232 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

by Arcadius and Honorius. Then followed a long list 
of emperors, who are not even worth naming. The 
events of their time are no otherwise interesting, than as 
they were connected with the great event which was 
about to change the whole face of Europe. 

§ 434. We now approach near to that course of things, 
which changed all the political and social relations of 
Europe, and brought on that night of barbarism and ig- 
norance which continued nearly a thousand years. The 
refinement and civilization to which the world had attain- 
ed, disappeared in so short a time as to show, in a striking 
manner, the difference between long continued and labori- 
ous efforts to improve, adorn, and secure ; and the light 
labour of demolishing all that such efforts can effect. 
It is true that the Romans had been preparing themselves 
for destruction, though they knew it not; and seem never 
to have been more proud of their grandeur, nor more 
assured of its duration, than at the moment of utter pros- 
tration. It is to be noticed, that we are now considering 
the Romans, in their own Italy ; and not the Romans 
who so called themselves at Constantinople, the seat of 
eastern empire ; for, if the people of mixed and question- 
able character, who were ruled from the throne there, 
are to be considered as Romans, they continued so to 
exist, for nearly eight centuries after the time when the 
Romans of Italy were lost in an ocean of barbarism. 

§ 435. Before we consider the origin and character 
of the barbarians who conquered Rome, and established 
an empire on its ruins, it seems proper to consider what 
the Romans were, on the eve of destruction, and from 
what causes their inability to resist their invaders arose. 

§ 436. The conquests of Rome had made the whole 
world tributary to her grandeur. The spoils of the van- 
quished had gathered at this central point. The frequent 
confiscations, and extermination of whole families, in 
civil broils, had given opportunity to individuals to ac- 
quire immense wealth. Excessive luxury, and the vari- 
ety of national character which then existed in Rome, 
had extinguished all feelings of ancient patriotism, and 
devotion to common interest. The people, rich or poor, 
had long lost their solicitude in political affairs. The 
poor asked only to be fed ; the rich asked only to enjoy 
their riches, careless who ruled, if their purposes were 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 333 

accomplished. Commerce had always been held in con- 
tempt at Rome ; none but freedmen, and slaves, conde- 
scended to engage in that employment. The various 
mechanical occupations, which lead to domestic happi- 
ness, and public prosperity, in the United States, were 
unworthy of the hands of Romans. The consequence 
was inevitable, that the inhabitants of the city were di- 
vided into the rich and the poor ; the former too proud 
and arrogant to recognize the latter as human beings, 
the latter too abject and degraded, not to acknowledge 
and submit to the pretensions of the former. 

§ 437. The rich were so in lands, in slaves, in gold 
and silver, and in whatsoever gold and silver can pur- 
chase. Their lands were cultivated by slaves, or by ten- 
ants. They stood in the relation of creditors, receiving 
exorbitant interest. They had also great revenues from 
estates which they owned within the city. The annual 
income of one of the senators was equal to 750,000 dol- 
lars, besides his share of products in wine and oil, which 
made the whole income equal to a million. In $ome 
of the annual celebrations of official dignity, the expend- 
iture was between one and two hundred thousand dollars. 
When extravagant expenditures exhausted their means, 
they became debtors to those who could supply their 
wants. Their territorial property was not limited to Ita- 
ly, but extended throughout the provinces. Their ex- 
penditures were given to the most costly luxuries, com- 
prising extensive palaces and gardens, the most gorgeous 
display of ornaments, the most expensive entertainments, 
splendid equipages, and a long retinue of attendants. 
The poor vanity of multiplying their likenesses by bronze 
statues, and tracing their descent from noble and prince- 
ly ancestors, were among their most valued occupations; 
and they assumed a personal dignity founded on such 
pretensions. The absence of all rational employments, 
and the consequent tedium of the hours between one 
sumptuous repast and another, were relieved, not by the 
cruel sports of gladiators, but by the more fascinating 
attraction of gaming. But for the generality of the peo- 
ple, the chariot races, and various descriptions of specta- 
cles, still continued. 

<^ 438. A large portion of the city was appropriated to 
the palaces of the wealthy, and to the grounds which be- 
20* 



234 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

longed to them, enclosed by high walls. Other parts 
were occupied by the inferior classes, who were crowded 
into tenements obtained by the multiplication of stories 
in the air ; a numerous family occupying but one apart- 
ment, in a lofty building. To keep an idle, craving 
populace from insurrection and tumult, it was indispen- 
sable to supply them with daily food, at the public ex- 
pense. Bread was so distributed ; and also animal sub- 
sistence from immense droves of wild hogs, which were 
kept in the public forests of Lucania, where they fat- 
tened upon acorns. The Romans seemed to have im- 
ported, and to have naturalized, all the vices and deprav- 
ity which they had foUnd in the countries over which 
their conquests extended. For republican simplicity 
and equality, they had substituted the contrasts of ex- 
cessive wealth and extreme poverty, which they had 
found in the East. The hardihood and manly virtues of 
their ancestors, were exchanged for the effeminacy and 
venality of Asiatic manners. The inferior classes had 
no upsort but to copy their superiors, in the modes with- 
in their means, and these were found in places of the 
lowest debasement, and most vulgar prostitution. 

§ 439. In one thing only, had all classes a common 
sentiment who had not yet opened their eyes to the 
truths of Christianity (of which class there was already 
a respectable number) and this was, that all the doc- 
trines of idolatrous superstition still ruled them. OmenSj 
dreams, and auguries, applied to the daily affairs of life, 
complete the picture of Roman character at the com- 
mencement of the fifth century. The whole number of 
persons who then dwelt in Rome is not certainly known. 
The lowest computation brings them up to 1,200,000; 
which is four fifths of the present population of London, 
but other computations make the whole number near to 
three millions. 

§ 440. Such was Rome when the hosts of barbarians 
from the north and east presented themselves in Italy. 
It will be remembered that the Romans and Grecians 
had resisted similar invasions for centuries. The time 
had now come, when Rome through her own decline 
and corruption, was to experience the misery which she 
had carried to governments and the people throughout 
the world. While Rome was able to resist, and to carry 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 235 

the war beyond the Alps, and beyond the Danube, she 
laid waste and destroyed to the extent of preventing the 
rapid increase of the barbarians. Caesar boasts, that in 
his wars a million of persons in the ranks of his adver- 
saries had fallen. Adding to this number the millions 
which fell in conflicts with other Roman generals, the 
reason may be found why the triumph of the barbarians 
was so long in coming. 

§ 441. The origin of these nations whom the Greeks 
and Romans called by the comprehensive name of bar- 
barians, is unknown. At what time they came into Eu- 
rope, is equally unknown. Five hundred years before 
the Christian era, there were Nomadic tribes around 
the northern and western shores of the Black Sea. 
Cambyses attempted to add them to the Persian domin- 
ions ; but they fled before him, and yielded him no fruits 
of conquests. Under various names, they are supposed 
to have spread over all the north of Europe to the Baltic 
sea, and German ocean, and thence into Germany and 
France, where they were met and contended with in 
the time of Csesar. In the fourth century these myriads 
are mentioned under the names of Goths, Ostrogoths, 
Vandals, Alains, Heruli, Gepidae, Suevi, Burgundians, 
Franks, Saxons, Lombards, Huns, and many others. 
The Huns are supposed to have come from the very 
confines of China ; and may, perhaps, be derived from 
the first emigrants who left the banks of the Euphrates 
and Tigris, as descendants of Japhet. 

§ 442. It is stated by historians, that these nations 
succeeded each other like the waves of the sea, the 
last comers pro*pclling their precursors ; and that the 
Huns were the last, who drove all others before them. 
Yet these are conjectures only. There were no records 
among the barbarians ; and if they had bards and tra- 
ditions, their story of themselves no longer remains. 
It is probable that they were Nomadic tribes who moved 
with their wives, children, and cattle ; and that the 
places which they tenanted were the only homes they 
knew. They do not appear to have had cities or towns, 
or places of abode, excepting indispensable protection 
against the cold of the northern regions into which they 
were driven. They were led by military chiefs, and all 
the males were warriors ; and their wives and children 



236 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

if not actually within the reach of conflict, were but 
little removed from it. Towards the time now spoken 
of, the commencement of the fifth century, these bar- 
barians had been long enough on the confines of civili- 
zation, to have changed in some respects their ancient 
habits. The varieties of language which exist in the 
middle and north of Europe, are undoubtedly derived 
from these tribes ; and it is not improbable, that even 
the Greek and Latin may, at some remote time, have 
come from the source whence the languages of these 
barbarians came. 

<5, 443. In the year 408 of the Christian era, Alaric 
surrounded enfeebled Rome with a numerous army of 
Goths. All supplies from without were cut off". The 
miseries of famine ensued, and extended alike to the 
abodes of dependant poverty, and to the marble palaces. 
It is even intimated that the cravings for food were such, 
that desperate wretches fed on the bodies of their fellow 
creatures ; and that the miseries which Rome had in- 
flicted on Jerusalem, were now experienced within her 
own walls to such extent that the most powerful feeling 
in a mother's heart, gave way to the demands of hun- 
ger. The senate despairing of all relief were forced to 
send an embassy to the Gothic chief. They began by 
recounting the military glory of Rome, and intimated 
that their legions of tried valour, and trained to arms, 
would be poured out upon the besieging hosts. Alaric 
answered, 'the thicker the grass, the easier is it mowed.' 
Failing in this manoeuvre, the embassy asked what he 
demanded ; and were answered, ' all the gold and silver 
in the city, all the precious moveables, and all the slaves 
who could trace their origin to the barbarians.' ' What 
then will you leave us V ' your lives.' Peace was con- 
cluded on his own terms, and he retired to the north of 
Italy to spend the winter. 

§ 444. In 409 Alaric appeared again, with his hosts 
before Rome ; and immediately seized the magazines of 
provisions, which the Romans had been collectings at the 
mouth of the Tiber. He then demanded a surrender of 
the city, without terms, and subject to his own discre- 
tion, or that he should be allowed to name an emperor 
himself, in place of the nominal emperor who was then 
Honorius, and who resided at Ravenna, near to the 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 237 

present city of Venice. This proposal was accepted, 
and Attains was crowned in the forum by the joint 
agency of the Romans and Goths. But this measure 
could not save the city from the fate of conquest ; and the 
followers of Alaric were allowed to pillage and ravage 
according to the right of the strongest. This, however, 
is worthy of notice, that the barbarian commander drew 
the line of protection around the Christian churches, 
and forbad his followers to violate them. It seems, that 
the former persecutions of the Christians had driven 
some of them among the barbarians, who had learned 
to venerate the religion which these fugitives professed. 

<^ 445. For six days Rome was submitted to all the 
horrors of a conquered city. Neither property, nor life, 
nor any thing dearer than life, was spared. Among the 
troops of Alaric were thousands who had been slaves, 
and who now came not only as conquerors, but to 
satiate their personal malice. The number of the slain, 
and of those who escaped and fled from Italy by sea, 
amounted to many thousands. Thus, in the long course 
of events, something like retributive justice was admin- 
istered with barbarian rigour, to the proud mistress of the 
world. During the next three years the Goths rioted at 
leisure, along the south of Italy, subjecting every city to 
the miseries which Rome had experienced. In 412, 
while Alaric was preparing to invade Sicily, he died. 
Some of his followers turned the river Busentius from 
its channel, and dug his grave in its bed, and buried him 
there with the customary rites, and with the accustomed 
deposit of spoils and treasures. The river was then 
restored to its channel ; and that the place of his sepul- 
chre might never be known, those who prepared it were 
put to death. 

§ 446. Adolphus was the successor of Alaric. Among 
the persons found in Rome, was Placidia, the young, 
accomplished, and beautiful sister of the emperor Hono- 
rius. She was taken and carried by Alaric as a cap- 
tive, in the expectation that she would be ransomed. 
While she was captive in the Gothic camp, she conquer- 
ed young Adolphus, and, to the astonishment of the Ro- 
mans, consented to be his bride. Adolphus was con- 
vinced that he could not bring the Goths into the state 
of civilization, and obedience, which would justify him 



238 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

in assuming a royal authority in Italy ; and that his 
hosts must be led where war and plunder could be en- 
joyed. He therefore concluded to offer terms to Hono- 
rius, and to become a Roman general, and, in that char- 
acter, to conduct his army into Gaul, (the south of 
France.) This was so settled ; and Adolphus and his 
wife departed from Italy. In 415 he had invaded Spain, 
and was assassinated in that year at Barcelona. 

§ 447. The measure of Roman misery was not yet 
full. Ginseric the leader of the Vandals, had penetrat- 
ed from the shores of the Baltic to Spain, had passed 
through that country as a conqueror ; and went thence 
into Africa. Having established himself at Carthage, 
and having seized on all that he chose to possess, and 
having' destroyed all monuments of Roman grandeur, to 
which he attached no value ; he passed over to the 
mouth of the Tiber, and thence to Rome, now so broken 
and enfeebled as to be incapable of resistance. There 
was nothing in Rome that was sacred in the eyes of this 
vandal. The whole city was abandoned during fourteen 
days, (from the 15tli to 29th June 423) to the rapacity 
and to the violence ; in short, to the wants, and to the 
will, of a barbarian army. All that remained to public 
officers, and to private individuals, male and female, 
which a Vandal could desire, he took. The churches 
and temples were spoiled of every thing which glittered ; 
and all which belonged to learning, taste, and elegance, 
which barbarians could not value, was destroyed. These 
spoils, with all the persons whom Ginseric thought pro- 
per to take as captives, were transported from Rome to 
that city which stood on the same site, and bore the 
same name with that, which the Roman Scipio spent 
seventeen days in plundering, and destroying, and where 
he even wept over the miseries which he caused. 

§ 448. Rome, and the name of Romans yet existed. 
Nothing remained but to transfer the city to a foreign 
power, and to extinguish that name. This event occur- 
red in 476, when Odoacer the chief of the Heruli enter- 
ed Rome as its possessor in right of conquest, and there 
assumed a crown, not as king of Rome but as king of 
Italy. Thus all Europe was subdued by the barba- 
rians except the remnant of Roman authority, which 
still continued in Constantinople as its seat of empire. 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 339 

'^ 449. Such seems to have been the origin, the pro- 
gress, the decline, and fall of Rome. Emotions of sor- 
row and compassion arise, that Rome, and Romans, 
should be prostrate before an unfeeling and ignorant 
savage : that brutal muscular strength should usurp the 
abodes of Camillus, of the Scipios, and of Brutus ; and 
the seats of patriotism, learning, eloquence, and refine- 
ment. But, what was patriotism at Rome 1 Humilia- 
tion, servitude, or destruction, to all that lived but Ro- 
mans. What was learning at Rome ? The best of the 
remnants which have been saved, are mythological fan- 
cies, stories of barbarous or intestine wars, severe satires 
on Roman manners, or plaints of suffering under the 
hand of rapine : the only relief, in the picture, is the 
beautiful philosophy of Cicero. Of the eloquence of 
Rome, the finest specimens are found in the just crimi- 
nations of its own profligate conspirators, against the 
rights and liberties of their countrymen. Its refinements, 
with few exceptions, may all be reduced to the using of 
natural and artificial products, for the mere gratification 
of the senses. The roads of the empire, were for armies 
to march on. The monuments of Rome tell only of 
Roman cruelties and robberies, or of arrogant self-gra- 
tulation. The national integrity of Romans is found 
in the answer of Brennus, the Gaul ; ' my right I carry 
at the point of my sword ; all things belong to the 
brave.' What was the sum of misery inflicted on the 
human race, to make Rome great and glorious ! How 
many countries laid waste ; how many cities plundered 
and destroyed; how many better men than Romans, 
and even how many illustrious females toiled after the 
triumphal car, to pass to the precincts of a prison, or 
to the hands of an executioner ! After all the proud 
eulogies bestowed on Romans, they were, in morals, 
worse than those whom they stigmatised as barbarians ; 
they were superior to their final conquerors, only in the 
refinements of selfishness. 

§ 450. Here ends the history of ancient nations, ex- 
cepting that the name of Roman still belonged to the 
empire of the East reigning in splendid and luxurious 
Constantinople. The events there, though occurring 
through . several centuries after the fall of Rome, are 
with a few exceptions, of little importance at the pre- 



240 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

sent day. These exceptions, of whatsoever importance 
belong, it is conceived, to the history of the middle ages, 
which has for its elements in commencing the remnants 
of ancient philosophy, the new policy, government and 
transactions of a people known in ancient history, only 
as barbarians ; and the progress, character, and influ- 
ence, of Christianity. 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 241 



CHAPTER XXX. 

Comparisons 
Between ancient nations, and the people of the United States. 

§ 451. In the events of these 4476 years, some mate- 
rials are found for comparing the condition of an'cient 
nations, with that of the people of the United States. It 
appears that the forms in which poHtical power was ex- 
ercised among these nations, comprise every form, from 
the most simple popular government to the most absolute 
despotism of one person. The three branches of gov- 
ernment, which are indispensable in every community, 
that is, the making of laws, applying them in the admin- 
istration of justice, and executing the laws, (when this 
application has been made,) appear, in general, to have 
been vested in one assembly, in a few persons, or in one. 
Thus, the senate of Rome made a law, judged those 
persons who were accused of violating it, and pronoun- 
ced and executed the judgment. Popular assemblies, in 
the cities of Greece, sometimes exercised the like pow- 
ers. When the government was siijaply despotic, and 
residing in one person, this one exercised the like powers. 
When such a ruler ordered a man's head to be struck 
off, as in the case of Nero, when he ordered a musician 
that ventured to try his musical powers, in competition 
with himself, to be slain, there were legislation, judicial 
proceedings, and execution. The law was in this case 
made upon the spot, that whoever pretends to be a better 
singer than Nero, shall suffer death ; this Grecian pre- 
tends to be such ; he is, therefore, to be put to death. 
The facility and capriciousness with which these powers 
were exercised, made no difference in their nature. Nor 
does the principle of the government vary at all, when 
all these powers are exercised by one popular assembly, 
however numerous ; and when they are exercised by one 
man. There is no instance, among all the nations which 
have been noticed, where the salutary check existed, 
of having the laws made by one authority, judged of and 
'21 



242? THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK.' 

applied by another, and executed or carried into effect, 
by still another. 

^ 452. Americans have this security, in their national 
government, and also in all the states of the union, that 
the power which makes the law, can neither judge of nor 
execute it ; the power that judges of and applies the law, 
can neither make it, nor execute it ; the power that exe- 
cutes the law, can neither judge of it, nor make it. These 
constitutional and wise provisions of the Americans have 
never appeared in any governments, in the separate and 
independent forms in which they appear in their own. 
And as the law making power, and the executive power, 
(being dependant on popular election,) may sometimes, 
under excitement or mistake, be exercised in modes not 
intended by the people, it is a great security against 
abuse, that the judicial power, (which is, in general, in- 
dependent of popular election,) should have the high trust 
and duty of annulling those acts, which are clearly found- 
ed in such excitement or mistake. This excellent pro- 
vision, of which the salutary use has been repeatedly 
experienced, is peculiar to the American governments. 

§ 453. Where the legislative authority, in these ancient 
nations, appears to have been vested in popular assem- 
blies, there was but one assembly to make the law ; and 
the forms of proceeding were rapid, and had few re- 
straints. The momentary excitement was often that in 
which the law was proposed, considered, and adopted. 
The Americans have, in all their governments, two 
branches independent of each other, who together consti- 
tute the legislature; and both branches must concur, to 
make a law. This requires time ; gives room for delibe- 
ration ; and the cases are rare, in which one or more 
days do not intervene, (and oftener many days,) between 
the first proposal of a law, and its final enactment. Add 
to this, that in nearly all the state governments, and in 
the national government, the executive power can exact 
a new deliberation in the legislature ; and thus require a 
more decisive majority. If that majority does not ap- 
pear, the executive can absolutely defeat the intended 
law. Yet, there is a check on the unwise exercise of ex- 
ecutive power in such cases. For if the required major- 
ity, (two-thirds of both branches,) be found in favour 
of the proposed act, it becomes a law, though the execu- 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 243 

tive be still opposed. And even after this, the question 
may arise in the judicial branch, whether the law be, or 
be not, within the constitutional power to legislate. As 
this high trust of judicial power is usually confided to 
learned, able, and independent men, who are duly care- 
ful of an honourable fame, in the conscientious discharge 
of duty, it is clearly apparent, that the theory of the 
American governments is transcendently superior to any 
which are seen among these ancient nations. In truth, 
it cannot be conceived how the checks and restraints, as 
to mischievous or unwise use of power, could be more 
judiciously ordered ; while at the same time, a just and 
wise use of power is unrestricted. 

^ 454. Among the causes of the miseries which have 
been noticed, in these ancient nations, was that of irra- 
tional distinction among the members of society. Birth, 
oifice, or peculiar privileges, gave a superiority to a few, 
over the multitude. The few were rich, luxurious and 
tyrannical, the many were poor, craving, idle and igno- 
rant ; and yet, were sometimes the ultimate sovereign, 
especially in Rome. When the favour of such a sove- 
reign was to be had through gifts, spectacles, and amuse- 
ments, which the rich and aspiring could afford to pre- 
sent, it was inevitable that such a sovereign should become 
venal and corrupt. It was still worse, when the populace 
were idle and craving, and could only be kept from se- 
dition and tumult, by being fed at public expense, and 
amused with splendid pageantry ; or interested by san- 
guinary conflicts between human beings, or between men 
and ferocious beasts. 

§ 455. No such causes of degradation exist in the Unit- 
ed States. Office does not give wealth, nor the means 
of acquiring it, unless gross and abominable frauds be 
resorted to. There are no distinctions founded in rich- 
es, which are politically dangerous, or socially inconve- 
nient. Riches come from inheritance, or industry ; and 
the wealthy must use their wealth for the common good, 
or not use it at all. Wealth cannot be productive here, 
without giving employment to the various orders of soci- 
ety, in the known divisions of labour. There can be no 
accumulation of wealth, which will make it a dangerous 
engine. Comparing the riches which many individuals 
had in Rome, Greece, and the East, with those which 



244 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

Americans have, no man in the United States can be said 
to be rich. The wealth of the richest is soon divided 
and dissipated ; and one or two generations sink the 
greatest fortune to insignificance, by distribution. The 
way to wealth is equally open to talents and industry, in 
whomsoever these qualities are found. But, however 
rich one may be, and whatever use he may desire to make 
of riches, for purposes hostile to the public welfare, there 
is no such material to work upon here, as in Greece and 
Rome. There is in this land no idle, corrupt populace, 
for a Crassus to purchase ; no hireling soldiery, for an 
Octavius to reward. Every member of society may be 
usefully and properly busy, and all worthy and reputable 
persons are so. 

§ 456. A point of much importance, in comparing the 
nations of antiquity with the American nation, is found 
in the matter of occupation. War was so common an 
occupation, that it might almost be called the very busi- 
ness of ancient people ; and when they were not so busy, 
and were not engaged in some exciting pleasure, they 
had to find occupation in modes either dangerous to the 
public peace, or injui'ious to themselves. Agriculture, 
the mechanic arts, and commerce, were in general the 
employment only of slaves. There does not appear to^ 
have been in Greece, or Rome, a class of persons known 
under the name of merchants,^ While, in modern days, 
it is known, that merchants are among the most honour- 
able and useful members of society. Considering how 
intimately their pursuits are blended with all things that 
tend to make nations strong and independent, and how 
industrious, intelligent, and comfortable, merchants may 
be, the presence or absence of commerce, as a national 
vocation, makes a most important item in the elements 
of human welfare. If ship-building, navigation, commer- 

* The estimation in which that part of the Roman people, ' who- 
buy to sell again,' was held, is described in the 42d chapter of the 
first book of Cicero's work, entitled De Officiis. He quotes a line 
from the Latin poet, Terence, with approbation, which shows that 
the Romans knew nothing- of the class of men, who, in this day, are 
called merchants. The history of Grreece, in all its stages, discloses, 
that such a class of men was unknown to Grecians. The observa- 
tions of Cicero are too long to be quoted. They show, as so many 
other facts do, a difference, in the ordering of society, most favoui^ 
able to Americans. 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 245 

'Gial interchange, and the agricultural and mechanical 
labour necessarily connected with these, be considered, 
one arrives, necessarily, at the causes of the general dif- 
fusion of property. Where there is property, or means 
of subsistence, there will be family ties. Property, and 
domestic relations, and pleasant homes, dispose the 
members of society to peace, and turn them away from 
hazardous contentions, in which much may be lost, and 
nothing gained. A peaceful, industrious, intelligent com- 
munity, is very likely to be, it certainly may be, a well 
informed and moral one. In all these respects, it is ob- 
vious that Americans, in the point of occupation^ are in 
a far superior condition to that of any ancient people. 

§ 457. It has been seen, that all the nations which have 
been considered, w-ere religious. That magnificent tem- 
ples, a sacred and mysterious priestliood, costly sacrifi- 
ces, and degrading superstitions, were common to all 
of them. It is also seen, tliat such religion had no con- 
nection with good morals, but, on the contrary, that reli- 
gious ceremonies and duties either produced or concealed, 
the grossest immoralities. That such religion, instead 
of exalting and enlightening the human mind, tended 
only to hold it in debasing ignorance. In this respect, 
Americans are, or might be, immeasurably elevated above 
all people of ancient days. A religion has been reveal- 
ed, which satisfies human reason, however instructed it 
may be ; and which teaches a morality for all conditions 
of mankind, which, faithfully observed, is sure to produce 
the highest felicity that can be known on earth. 

§ 458. One of the coftsequences of this religion and 
morality, is the exaltation of female character, of which 
all ancient nations were ignorant. What we learn of 
woman, among them, is, that her influence was rarely 
beneficial, and when exerted at all, was commonly exert- 
ed to some pernicious purpose. Beauty, accomplishments, 
and intellectual attainments, were rather means of cor- 
rupting and debasing society, than of purifying and ex- 
alting it. Among Americans, w^oman has her proper 
rank in society, as a wife, as a mother, and as a friend 
and counsellor ; but especially, as the guardian and in- 
structor of her own offspring, at the time of life wjien 
impressions the most durable, and the most useful, can 
be made. There were exceptions to the degradation, or 
21* 



246 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK, 

insignificance of female character, among Greeks and 
Romans, as in Cornelia the mother of the Gracchi ; 
and even in Zenobia, of Palmyra. But, in general, 
woman was a toy, a plaything, which could hardly pre- 
tend to have feelings, certainly not to have mind and 
judgment, in social affairs. Here it is unquestionably 
true, that the influence of female character is one of the 
most operative causes in the refinement of society ; and 
that the other sex can do no greater good to themselves, 
than to give to this sex that power, which they were in- 
tended to exercise. 

§ 459. Thus far, all comparisons are favourable to 
Americans. They have an excellent portion of the 
earth, the best possible forms of government, the most 
perfect equality that human society permits, honourable 
and useful occupation, pure religion, and sound moral- 
ity. The very serious problem is, whether Americans 
are capable of appreciating and preserving, such distin- 
guished advantages ? It would betray an ignorance 
which any person of ordinary means of information 
would be ashamed of, to assert that these advantages are 
in no peril. Precisely the same cravings and aspira- 
tions are seen in this country, which were seen in Greece 
and Rome. The human heart is the same now, that it 
was 2000 years ago. But, most fortunately, the means 
of gratifying its cravings, are not as abundant now, as 
they were then. The objects of pursuit must be the 
same ; that is power, dominion, distinction. The means 
are different. A majority cannot be won now, by gifts, 
feasts, and shows ; nor commanded by mercenary legions. 
But there may be diff(erences on the policy to be pursu- 
ed ; there certainly will be opposing parties. It may be 
supposed, that a sense of interest will regulate such 
subjects of controversy, without disturbing the public 
peace. 

§ 460. It is obvious, that while Greece and Rome 
were republican, there must have been some mode of 
forming public opinion ; that is, some mode of coming 
to a judgment, on what should, or should not be done. 
The mode must have been, comparison of opinion among 
indiyiduals ; and public discussions. There were in 
Greece and Rome, spacious public buildings, to which 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 247 

the people resorted daily, and where they held their 
conversations, having no such business as required their 
presence and attention elsewhere. The public discus- 
sions were prepared orations, which were addressed to 
these assemblies ; and after hearing them, the public 
sentiment was declared, according to the degree of ex- 
citement vi^hich had been produced. Of this nature 
were Demosthenes' orations against Philip ; Cicero's 
orations against Catiline, and Mark Antony ; and the 
speech of the latter over the dead body of Csesar.* 
The highly excitable nature of the Greeks and Romans, 
and especially of the Athenians, and the moving char- 
acter of the eloquence of these times, must have involv- 
ed causes and eifects very different from the calm de- 
liberations, which are common in the popular assemblies 
of Americans. 

§ 461- Ancient people were strangers to the press, 
the great machine for moving public opinion, in modern 
days. Far greater numbers are affected by such means, 
and without any concert, or contact with each other, 
than could be, before the press was invented. But this 
machine, like most other engines directed by human 
agency, may be used for good, or for evil ; and is now 
used industriously for both these purposes, in this coun- 
try. The beneficial or injurious effects of this engine, 
may depend on the qualities of those who read. A 
moral well informed community will not sustain a press' 
used for purposes destructive of their individual and 
social welfare. But a people capable of being deceived 
and deluded, as the Romans and Greeks sometimes 
were, by inflammatory declamation, will take the offer- 
ings of the press, however base they may be, and re- 
spond to their dictation, although their own security 
and happiness be the price, which they pay for such 
teachings. Hence it is clear., that the remedy against 
the abuses of the press, is no where to be found, but in 
that instruction which enables a community to judge, 

* It is doubtful whether Caesar's body remained in the senate 
chamber up to the time of this harangue. Some accounts say, 
that Antony had the similitude of it in wax, or some other sub- 
stance, as stained with blood, and placed it in a small portable tem- 
ple, and veiled, and that he unveiled it, at the suitable moment, and 
at the same time held up Caesar's bloody robe. 



248 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

whether the products of the press are good or bad- 
Cases exist now, in this country, where an individual 
has gained the confidence of thousands through his own 
newspaper ; and as these thousands know nothing of 
men, measures, and motives, but through his version of 
them, he exercises a despotism as absolute as can be 
exercised, short of that which is founded in physical 
force. But, how is the fact to be brought home to the 
minds of these thousands, that they are deluded, and 
that their confidence is abused ? Probably by no means, 
but by calamities, which dispel delusions, and which 
force upon the mind the inquiry, what is true, and what 
is false, and who are honest, and who are fraudulent ? 
To prevent an adaptation to be deluded, and abused, 
there are no worthier or more effective means, than 
School^. The occupants of school rooms may receive 
principles and impressions, which will meet, and neu- 
tralize the efforts of a corrupting press. 

^ 462. It is seen, that among nations under an abso- 
lute despotism, revolutions were effected in the summary 
mode of assassinating the despot, and by the raising of 
a successor. In republics, the struggle is between par- 
ties for power ; sometimes to maintain a principle ; 
sometimes merely to sustain a favourite man ; and 
sometimes both motives are combined. A diligent mi- 
nority can increase its numbers, and become a majority. 
It has been seen that a dominant majority would strength- 
en its power, by giving to adversaries opprobrious names, 
by driving all opponents into retirement, and frequently 
by proscribing them, and putting them to death. Such 
was the course pursued by the (rreeks, and by the Ro- 
mans ; and especially by Marius, and Sylla, and the 
second triumvirate. 

§ 463. The political institutions of this country are 
founded on the principle that the sovereign, that is, 
the people, are, as all sovereigns are assumed to be, vir- 
tuous and wise ; that they will show themselves to be so, 
by selecting wise and virtuous rulers. Such selection 
implies free will to act, according to the dictates of 
virtue and wisdom. But it is seen, at almost every im- 
portant election, that a few men, with presses devoted 
to their purposes, and with agents who will adopt any 
means suited to the end in view, absolutely express,- 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 249 

what seems to be the will of the community, as exclu- 
sively, as though the election depended alone on their 
own will. If the election is to preserve the power of a 
triumphant party, the means resorted to show already a 
stage of corruption, which belonged to Rome in its de- 
clining years. The means are as unworthy as any 
which appeared in that city, and as violent as any used 
there, when life was not destroyed. In a debate which 
occurred in congress, at the last session, it was asserted, 
and not denied, that some officers, holding places under 
executive appointment, were required to surrender a 
portion of their salaries, (and to commit perjuri/ in doing 
so) to make a fund to be used in perpetuating the power 
of a party! What objection is there to this? Can a 
party which has brushed away political morality as cob- 
webs, tell others, or know themselves, where they will 
stop in their career 7 Usurpation everywhere begets 
usurpation. It is as reasonable to suppose that usurp- 
ers will stop short of tyranny, as that a riv er will stop . 
midway in its course, and not find the ocean. Did 
Marius, Sylla, Caesar, or Octavius, dream of absolute 
power, when the career was first commenced 1 

'^ 464. The snme proscribing spirit has been manifest- 
ed in this country, repeatedly, in various forms. The 
rewarding of partisans with offices, and exacting of poor 
and dependant citizens in office, to give up the liberty 
of freemen, and to assume an allegiance to a ruling 
party, is the true spirit of the second triumvirate. It 
differs in nothing but in the power to carry the will into 
effect. Nothing can be conceived of, more at variance 
with the nature of our institutions, than to deprive a 
citizen of his honest name, and of his bread, because 
he cannot submit himself to the will of men, whom the 
people have elected to office, for a limited time. If such 
measures are successful, and the ruling party can keep 
itself in power, by its own acts, there is an end of civil 
liberty, and of the Republic. 

^ 465. The only things that have hitherto saved this 
country from tyranny, are, that the insolence of a ruling 
party has disgusted tlie citizens, and expelled the usurp- 
ers, by the peaceful remedy of election. Or, the mem- 
bers of a ruling party have fallen into contentions among 
themselves, and broken into fragments. When such 



250 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

events occur, new parties arise. There is, and has al- 
ways been, and may long continue to be, a great major- 
ity in this country, who are sincerely and conscientiously 
attached to the institutions under which they live. They 
are often found to be ranged under different party names 
at the same time. But when the alarm comes, and these 
institutions are endangered, all this class of citizens are 
seen to combine, and by united eflforts, to arrest the im- 
pending peril. 

§ 466. The very felicity of this country is one of its 
most threatening causes of destruction. Unlike the 
Greeks and Romans, the class of citizens last mention- 
ed, are too much occupied in their various vocations, to 
think of the duties of citizens. When no pressing dan- 
ger is apparent, they leave the cares of governing, to 
whomsoever will assume them. Thus the duration of the 
civil liberty, in this country, depends on this problem : 
How long will the friends of republican institutions, and 
.of the union, be awakened to an impending danger, in 
season to prevent a ruling party from fixing on them an 
absolute dominion ; or a factious one, from breaking the 
national bond ? This problem will be solved at a period,, 
sooner or later, just as the friends of republican liberty 
do, or do not, understand and perform their civil duties. 
They cannot repose in the belief, that there are not men 
among them, who will slide into absolute power, if they 
have the chance to do so, for such men do exist, and al- 
ways exist, in every free country. Nor can they doubt, 
that there may be- a deliberate intention to dissolve the 
union, though the consequences must be deplorable to 
those who so intend. 

§ 467. Lately the dismemberment of our empire has 
been regarded with fearful apprehension, and well it 
might be. Are the people of this country to be broken 
into the petty and blood-thirsty sovereignties, which dis- 
graced the Grecians for centuries ? Are our young men 
to fall in valiant but profitless conflicts, and wives and 
maidens to chant hymns of glory, while their eyes are 
showering tears? Are there not Persians in the East, 
who will rejoice in our calamities, and delight to see us 
diligently engaged in mutual destruction 1 The Persian, 
the Grecian, (under Alexander,) and the Roman em- 
pires fell into fragments, from their vast extent, wherein 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 251 

nnily could no longer be an element. The twenty sa- 
trapies (or kingdoms rather) of Persia, and eacli one 
of the Roman provinces, had their respective governors. 
Each one of these had a separate interest from that of the 
governed, and an interest hardly less separate from that 
of the chief, from whom he derived his authority. Op- 
pressions and tyrannies could not reach the ear of this 
chief; and if they did, his better policy was to pass them 
over, unless he wished to sacrifice his delegate, to reward 
some other. Our national empire, though less in terri- 
torial extent than either of these ancient ones, is yet large 
enough to be a fair subject of comparison with them. 
And how diiferent is our own empire from these ! We 
have numerous sovereignties, independent and well or- 
ganized, and yet united by a national contract, which 
brings them all into unity, for safe and useful purposes, 
Tvhile they have strength enough left to protect them- 
selves against all usurpations. But how can usurpa- 
tions succeed, which can be conducted only by those 
who are members of sovereignties that must fall, when 
usurpations do succeed \ Before usurpers can triumph, 
constitutional barriers must be broken down. The re- 
public will have ended. It will be immaterial what comes 
next. The people will be ready for proscriptions, tri- 
umvirates, and emperors. We look to schools, to the 
press, to intelligence, to virtue, to self-interest, to save 
this happy land from such calamities. 

§ 468. There is one propensity already manifested by 
Americtins, which assimilates them to Greeks and Ro- 
mans, in their period of decline, and which cannot be 
regarded without apprehension. Our republic, one would 
think, is not yet sufficiently tainted with the causes of de- 
cline, to commence the 'perilous worship of men. These 
ancient nations transferred their veneration for their 
country and its institutions, to the men whom they cloth- 
ed with power. They humbled and annihilated favour- 
ites, but it was only to set up others. Their devotion was 
not inspired by virtues, and public services ; it was an 
enthusiasm for the man, founded in some sort of splen- 
dour, commonly military, which he had thrown around 
himself. His admirers emulated the honour of being 
called his friends and followers ; they echoed his opinions ; 
they held all he had done, and all he could do, to be right ; 



^52 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

and they regarded as an enemy, every one who dared to 
entertain opinions differing from their own. If such 
feelings are necessarily incident to repubhcan govern- 
ment, then it may well be doubted, whether such sort 
of government can be maintained in human society : It 
cannot yet be admitted that they are so, and it must be 
hoped that better information will correct this propensity. 

^ 469. Our constitutions are founded on this princi- 
ple : There must be gov§rnment, and there must be pub- 
lic officers to administer it. Let it be supposed, that the 
most intelligent, and the most upright of the nation, are 
selected for office, and that they perform their duties in 
the best possible manner ; does this give a title to an offi- 
cer to be treated as a ' God?'' Is he to be corrupted by 
adulation, seduced into selfishness, and taught to believe 
that the mere performance of duty is to confer favours, 
which demand rewards 1 If American officers be so 
treated, they will, like Greeks and Romans, soon exact 
rewards very different from those which office can law- 
fully give. Elective officers are entitled to respect, be- 
cause of the trust confided to them, not as citizens. If 
this respect be not dignified and modest, it resolves it- 
self into fulsome applause, which the people bestow on 
themselves. This is to do as the populace' of Rome did. 
But suppose the accident of election puts a man of feeble 
talents, or of light pretensions to private worth, into of- 
fice ; in such case it is plain, that the respect is due to 
office, not to the man ; and to be consistent with repub- 
lican dignity, surely it should be modest. It is to be 
feared that the consideration attached to elective offices, 
in this country, both by those who hold them, and those 
who confer them, indicates that we might be better in- 
formed than Ave are, on the nature of our institutions. 

§ 470. Although public employment is not so compen- 
sated as to make it preferable to the gains of private 
industry ; and although public favour is very liable to 
sudden and lasting reverses ; and although all public em- 
ployments involve some responsibility, and many of them 
much labour and unceasing anxiety ; and although those 
who devote their lives to public employment, not unfre- 
quently encounter old-age in poverty, how does it happen 
that candidates for elective office are so abundant ? The 
reason probabi'ly is, that the love of power and distinction 



THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 253 

absorbs all sucli considerations. Such love, well direct- 
ed, and well used, is a principle of action which is indis- 
pensable to a safe and prosperous republic. It is the 
abuse of it which is to be dreaded. That abuse has led to 
a distinction which belongs to the decUning stages of a 
republic. There is already one sort of honesty for poli- 
ticians, and another sort for private life. A public man 
may, as a good member of a party, make assertions, and 
do acts, which would cover his face with blushes, as a 
private person. It is seen, in this country, that the af- 
fairs of a nation may be a mere trade, which flourishes 
best without integrity ; and that honesty is an incumbrance 
in politics. Power is, already, sometimes sought by con- 
trivance, ingenuity, deceit, and apostacy. Would it be 
held wrong, in private life, for a citizen to abjure his 
principles and associates, and suddenly to associate him- 
self with other men, professing opposite principles, and 
whom he had always held to be adversaries 1 That which 
shows a declining state in political integrity, and a com- 
menced corruption in public faith, is, that an apostate 
from one party is gladly received and made a chief by 
another. But such men purchase good, at a prodigal 
price. This sudden conversion iS no uncommon event 
in the United States. In the corrupt ages of Greece and 
Rome, such facility in changing sides, might be expect- 
ed ; but it seems to be very early, in our republic, to see 
it. 

§ 471. From the same love of power and dominion, 
directed by mere selfishness, there is a great deal to appre- 
hend in this country. There are seen among our citizens 
some who, under cover of patriotic professions, are striv- 
ing for dominion, to their oion use. Men of this character 
institute proscriptions in the same spirit with those which 
have transmitted the names of Marius and of Sylla. 
Such men need only the opportunity, to be as bloody as 
these two Romans were. They promise rewards, as 
Caesar and Octavius did. They do not take the estates 
and patrimony of harmless or opposing citizens, for they 
have not craving legions to sustain them in doing this ; 
but the spirit is the same, and, with the like opportunty, 
why should not they who feel it, go as far ? They can 
and do make of themselves suns, for satellites to revolve 
22 



254 THE HISTORICAL CLASS BOOK. 

around ; and these satellites know that they must quit 
their spheres, and fall into ruin, when their sun is extin- 
guished. The number of such cases, whether on a great 
or small scale, have been few, within the last half centu- 
ry ; but there have been enough of them to show, that 
young as our republic is, they may exist. Of every such 
plotting, selfish citizen, this country has reason to be 
afraid ; for, of every such citizen it may be said, as Sylla 
said of Csesar, * There is many a Marius in that man.' 



END OF PART FIRST. 



INDEX 



Page 

Asia, square of, 17 

events in, 49 

cities of, 50 

Abraham, calling of, 26 

Ararat, 22 

Assyria, 52 

Amphictyonic council, 73 

Argonautic voyage, 73 

Athens, 90 

population of, 103 

sculpture in, 108 

buildings in, 109 

taken by Spartans, 113 

philosophy in, 116 

painting in, 116 

eloquence in, 117 

historians of, 108 

Athenians, 103 

Athenian character, 104 

Areopagus, court of, 91 

Aristides, 105 

Artemisium, battle of, 98 

Aspasia, (at Athens) 108 

Age of Pericles, 107 — 111 

Alcibiades, 112 — 113 

Alexander the Great, 120 

conquests of, 120 

character of, 121 

death of, ^ 122 

division of empire of, 123 

in Judea, • * 128 

Alexandrian school, 124 

library, 124 

Achcean league, 126 

Agrarian law, 143 

iEgis, meaning of, 174 

Antony, Mark, flies to Caesar, 180 

one of second triumvirate, 201 

speech over CaBsar, 196 

conquers Brutus and Cassius, 203 

and Cleopatra, - 204 — 208 

conquered by Octavius, 206 

death of, 207 

Actium, battle of, 209 

Augustus, (see Octavius) 



256 INDEX. 



of Thermopylse, 



Page 

Augustus, reign of, Roman emperor, 210 

closes temple of Janus, f}-^ 

titles of, ^Ij 

establishes praetorian band, ^j-J- 

death of, ^2 

his person, ~|^ 

character of, ~j^ 

by Gibbon, 216 

Augustan age, ^J^ 

Adrian, Roman emperor, JJ^ 

persecutes Christians, ^^& 

verses by, death of, ^^^ 

Antoninus Pius, Roman emperor, Jjo 

Aurelian, Roman emperor, ^*o 

Alaric, (Goth) J^» 

takes Rome, f^^ 

death and burial of, ^^J 

Adolphus, (Goth) ^^ 

marries Placidia, ^^' 

death of, ^^^ 

Augury, at Rome, yj^ 

Archimedes, of Syracuse, J-^" 

B 

Babel, tower of, ~^ 

Bethlehem, ^^ 

Babylon, ^ 

description of, ^^ 

ruins of, ^^ 

-Rennell's opinion of, ^4 

description by Herodotus of, 54 

prophecies on, 55 

Battle of Marathon, ^^ 



96 



of Salami s, ' ^^ 

of Artemisium, ^ 

ofPlatsea, . .^^ 

ofMycale, 100 

ofPharsalia, ' ^^^ 

ofPhilippi, |09 

of Actium, :f^^ 

ofZama, j^^ 

Brutus, Lucius Junius, 140 

orders his sons killed, 141 

Brutus, Marcus Junius, 1^^ 

Brutus, Marcus Junius, 1^5 

conspirator against Caesar, 195 

death of, 203 

character of, 204 

Brutus, Decimus, ^ j^^ 

supposed son of Caesar, 195 

conspirator against, 1^^ 

Brennus (Gaul) takes Rome, 1^^ 



INDEX. 257 

Page 

Barbarians, origin of, 235 

conquests by, 235 

names of, 235 

(Christians,) 236 

conquer Rome, 236 

C 

Cambyses, SO 

Cyrus, 55 

liberates the Jews, 56 

Cleavland's Grecian antiquities, 103 

Cimon, of Athens, 105 

Collatinus, of Rome, 140 

Consul, first Roman, , 141 

Cincinnatus, 143 

Cincinnati, order of, 144 

CsBsarea, city of, 130 

Canaan, land of, 31 

Camillus and Brennus, 145 

and Falerii, 146 

death and character of, 153 

Caudine forks, 147 

Carthage, 153 

and Roman wars, 154 

Cleopatra's barge, 204 

and Caesar, 186 

and Antony, 204 

and Octavius, 208 

character of, 18" 

death of, 208 

Claudius, Roman emperor, ^1 

Caligula, Roman emperor, 220 

Commodus, Roman emperor, 226 

Caesar, 169 

Sylla's opinion of, J-^y 

cotemporaries of, 1'6 

and Pompey's rivalry, l''^ 

enmity, 180 

passes the Rubicon, '■^ 

battle with Pompey, 183 

goes to Egypt, 186 

and Cleopatra, ^o/ 

's veni, vidi, vici, 188 

return to Italy, 188 

and Cicero, 188 

revolt of his legions, 189 

goes to Africa, 190 

triumphs of, * 191 

honours of, j91 

goes to Spain, 1^^ 



and the crown 

inst, 

22* 



192 



conspiracy against, ^95 

death of, 196 



258 INDEX. 



Caesar, character of, 197 

Cicero, 177 

Cicero's writings, , 188 

opinion of Caesar,. ^ 197 

death of, 202 

Cato, the censor, 161 

Cato, Uticensis, 190 

character of^ 190 

death of, 190 

Cassius, (conspirator) 177 

Crassus, (the Rich) 17G 

Catiline's conspiracy, ' 178 

Cassius, death of, 204 

Constantine the Great, •■ 229 

converted to Christianity, 229 

removes seat of empire to Constantinople, 229 

character of, 230 

adorns Constantinople, 230 

Council of Nice, 230 

Catholics, 231 

Comparisons between ancient nations and the people of the U.S. 240 

D 

Deluge, 22 

peopling earth after^ 24 

David anointed, 35 

his reign, 36 

his character, 37 

his writings, 38- 

Daniel, at Babylon, 53 

Delphic oracle, 81 

Draco, laws of, 90 

Demosthenes, 117 

Dictator, first Roman, 142 

Decemvirs, - 144 

Damascus, city of, 32 

Duilius, first naval victory of Romans^,, 154 

Domitian, Roman emperor, 223 

Darius and Esther, 56 

Dioclesian, Roman emperor ,^ 229 

tenth persecution of Christians^ , 229 

resigns the empire, 229 

K 

Egypt, position of, 17 

history of, 59 

people of, 59 

peopled from India, • 60 

succession of kings, 61 

conquered by Persia^ 62 

priests of, 63 

castes of, 63 

Joseph in, 63 

Herodotus, on, 63 



INDEX. 259 

Page 

Egypt, learning of, 64 

river Nile, . 64 

religion of, • 65 — 67 

edifices of, ' 67 — 68 

ane lent ruins of, 68 — 69 

Esther, 56 

intercession for Jews, 57 

Ecbatana, city of, 58 

Elora, (Indian) city of, 69 

Epaminondas, (Grecian) 115 

Eloquence in Atiiens, 117 

Egyptian kingdom, (Ptolemy) 124 

hieroglyphics, 63 

Emperors, Roman, list of, 219 

length of reigns, 219 

manner of death, 219 

iffigis, meaning of, 174 

Elton's Roman emperors, 224 



Fabricius and Pyrrhus, 148 

G 

Geographical descriptions, 16 

Greece, 71 

description of, 72 

Olympic games of, 84 

Greeks, origin of, 72 

religion of, 74 

Grecian history, 73 

mythology, 75 

colonies, 80 

Genseric, (Vandal) 238 

comes from Carthage, 238 

takes Rome, 238 

carries spoils to Carthage, 238 

Gladiators, and combats of, 171 

H 

History, its uses, 13 

elements of, 14 

ancient place of, 16 — 17 

Herodotus, (historian) 51 

Homer's poems, 76 — 77 

Herod, (the Great) 129 

character of, 130 

death of, 330 

Hieroglyphics, study of, 63 

Hannibal, of Carthage, 156 

crosses the Alps, 1^6 

battles of, 157 

flight of, 160 

death of, 160 

Heliogabalus, Roman emperor, 226 



260 INDEX. 



Page 

Israelites, wanderings of, - 18 

two kingdoms of, • 41 

population of, 46 

character of, 47 

Israel, kingdom of, 47 

kings of, 41 — 43 

Isocrates, (Grecian) 118 

Italy described, 136 

J 

Jerusalem, position of, 32 — ^33 

taken by Titus, 130 

destruction of, 130 

Judah, kingdom of, 41 

kings of, 44 — 48 

captivity of, 47 

character of, 48 

Judea conquered by Ptolemy, 129 

Jews return from captivity, 127 

dispersion of, 131 

Josephus, (historian) 132 

Jesus of Nazareth born, 132 

genealogy of, 133 

summary concerning, 133 

Jesus, observations of Josephus, Suetonius, Tacitus, 132 

Janus, temple of, 138 

Jordan, river, 28 

Jupiter Ammon, 69 

Justin (Martyr) 226 

Julian, apostate, Roman emperor, 231 

Jovian, Roman emperor, 231 



Language, origin of, ' 25 

confusion of, 25 

Semetic, 51 

Land, ^ promised,' 30 — 31 

Lycurgus, laws of, 86 — 87 

Lacedsemon, 86 — 87 

Livy, (historian) 137 

Lucretia, death of, 140 

Labyrihth, (Egypt) 68 

Longinus, 207 

Learning, in Sylla's time. 171 

Liyia, wife of Augustus, 214 

M. 

Moses, his credibility, 20 

his learning, 21 

books of, do 

leads Israelites, 28 — 29 

death of, do 



INDEX. 261 

Page 

Miltiades, (Grecian), 105 

Matthias, (Jew), 129 

Maccabees, do 

Manlius, and the Gauls, 145 

Mycale, battle of, 100 

Macaenas, and Augustus, 212 

Marias, (Roman), 164 

flight of, 165 

return to Rome, 166 

murders by, 167 

death of, do 

Maximin, Roman Emperor, 229 

resigns, do 

N. 

Nineveh, city of, 50 

Nebuchadnezzar, 53 

Nile, river in Egypt, 64 

annual overflow, do 

Nero, Roman Emperor, 221 

character of, 222 

cruelties of, * do 

death of, do 

Nerva, Roman Emperor, 224 

toleration by, do 

Nice, council of, 230 

O. 

Oracle of Delphi, 81 — 82 

Olympic games, 82 — 83 

effect of, 84 — 85 

Oration, first Funeral, 141 

Oases described, 

temple of Jupiter, Ammon in, 69 

Octavius, (Augustus), 200 

quarrels with Antony, do 

one of second triumvirate, 201 

exiles Lepidus, 204 

rewards his legions, 205 

quarrels with Antony, 206 

conquers Antony at Actium, do 

follows Antony to Egypt, 207 

and Cleopatra, 208 

Octavius' triumphal entry, do 

makes himself Emperor, 210 

afterwards called Augustus, (see Augustus), do 

OdoacerofHeruli, (Goth), 238 

takes Rome, do 

ends Roman Emperor in Italy, ' do 

Ovid's banishment, 212 



Pentateuch, of Moses 21 

Promised Land, ^ 30 



262 INDEX. 



Palestine, 


32 — 33 


Persia, 


51 


Phoenix, 


67 


Pisistratus, (Grecian) , 


91 


Pericles, " 


106 


government of, 


107 


Periclean age, 


107 — 111 


Pelopidas, (Grecian), 


115 


Painting at Athens, 


116 


Philosophy, 


do 


Philip of Macedon, 


118 


Philopoemen, (Grecian), 


125 


Phoenicia, 


31 


Philistines, 


30 


Pyramids in Egypt, 


68 


Pyrrhus and Romans, 


148 


and Fabricius, 


do 


Pharsalia, battle of, 


183 


Philippi, " " 


203 


Praetorian band, 


211 


camp, 


212 


Pantheon at Rome, • 


215 


Pliny, (elder) death of, 


223 


(younger) and Christians, 


224 


Polycarpus, 


226 


Pompey the Great, 


169 


victories in the East, 


178 


and Caesar, 


179 — 180 


retires to Greece, 


181 


at Pharsalia, 


182 


in Egypt, 


183 


reception in Egypt, 


184 


death of. 


184 


monument of. 


185 


's pillar^^ 
Priesthood of^ome, 


do 


172 — 173 


Palladium, (meaning of), 


174 


Portia, wife of Brutus, 


194 


People of the United States, and Ancient Nations 


COMPARED, 240 


R 

Rennell's geography of Herodotus, 


54 


Romans, origin of, 


135 


Rome, city of. 


136 


Kings of. 


137 


institutions by. 


138 


expulsion of. 


140 


Roman consuls, first. 


141 


triumph, first. 


do 


dictator, first. 


do 


Rome taken by Brennus, 


144 


wars of 391, to 264 6. C, 


147 


rebuilt 390 B. C, 


149 



INDEX. 



263 



Page 
Romans in 390 B. C, 150 — 151 

Roman superstition, do 

Rome and Carthage, 154 

first naval victory, do 

Roman Emperors, list of, 219 

Regulus and Carthage, 154 

fidelity of, 155 

death of, do 

Rome, population of, 210 

causes of decline, , 217 

character of citizens of, 218 

Roman Empire west and east, 231 

Rome, conquest by barbarians of, 236 

Romans, riches of, 213 

luxuries of, 217 

religious customs of, 172 

Romans eminent in 74 B. C., 176 — 177 

Roman Emperors, two at same time, 228 

appoint successors, under name of Csesars, 229 

Rome at beginning of 5th century, 232 

riches of, do 

luxury of, do 

classes of persons, 233 

manners and morals of, do 

poor of, 234 

superstition of, do 

S 

Square in Asia, l'^ 

of Mediterranean, 18 

Sampson, 34 

Samuel, ' 35 

Solomon, 38 

his reign, 39 

his character, do 

Susa or Shushan, city of, 57 
Sparta, 86-87 
Spartans, 88 — 89 

Sculpture in Athens, 108 
Socrates, 112—113 

Saviour born, 130 
State of world at this time, 130 — 131 

Suetonius (historian), 132 

Sybilline books, 139 

Salome of Herod's family, 130 

Sidon, city of, 36 

Saul, death of, do 

Sheba, queen of, 39 

Solomon's temple, do 

Sphynx Egyptian, ^8 

Semetic languages, 51 

St John's banishment, 224 



^ (C 



264 



INDEX. 



Sylla, his origin, 

proscriptions of, 

his government, 

resignation of, 

death of, 
Superstition of Military Chiefs, 

T 

Theocracy (government) , 
Trojan war, 

Thucydides, (historian), 
Themistocles, (Grecian), 
Tacitus, (historian). 
Triumph, first Roman, 
Tyre, city of, 
Tadmor, (Palmyra), 
Ten tribes accounted for, 
Theb.es, ruins of. 
Triumvirate, first, 

second, 
proscriptions of, 
division of Empire by, 
Tiberius, Roman Emperor, 
Titus, ' " . " 
Trajan, " " 

Tacitus, the younger, 
Theodosius the Great, Roman Emperor, 

zealous Christian, 

destroys Alexandrian Library, 



U 




34 

78 

102 

105 

132 

141 

31 

32 

47 

68 

179 

202 

do 

203 

220 

223 

224 

do 

231 

do 

do 



United States, people of, and Ancient Nations compared, 240 



V 
Vespasian, Roman Emperor, 
Virgil, (poet), 
Virginia, death of, 
Vesuvius, eruption in 79, 
Vestal Virgins, (Romans), 

Virgil's lamentation on Octavius' robbery of the citizens, 
Virginius kills his daughter, 



Xerxes (Persian), 
in Greece, 
death oL 



X 



132 
137 
144 
223 
173 
205 
144 



57 

94 — 95 

101 



Zenobia of Palmyra, 
captive, 
carried in triumph. 



Z 



227 
do 

doi 



1 



i 



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